DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, No. 42 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 

By 

BIRD T. BALDWIN 

Assisted by MADORAH SMITH 

IOWA CHILD WELFARE RESEARCH STATION 
UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 


[Advance sheets from the Biennial Survey of Education 

1920 - 1922 ] 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1923 

















BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

1923. 

No. 1. Diagnosis and treatment of young school failures. Helen T. Woolley 
and Elizabeth Ferris. 

No. 2. A school building program for Washington, N. C. Alice Barrows. 

No. 3. History of the Manual Training School of Washington University, St. 
Louis, Mo. Charles P. Coates. 

No. 4. Junior high schools of Berkeley, Calif. James T. Preston and others. 
No. 5. Recent development of parent-teacher associations. Ellen C. Lombard. 
No. 6. Home-economics education. Henrietta W. Calvin. 

No. 7. Educational work of the Young Men’s Christian Association. Wm. F. 
Hirsch. 

No. 8. Significant movements in city school systems. W. S. Deffenbaugh. 

No. 9. Supervision of one-teacher schools. Maud C, Newbury. 

No. 10. The public-school system of Arkansas. Part I. Digest of general 
report. 

No. 11. The public-school system of Arkansas. Part II. Public-school finance. 
Fletcher H. Swift. 

No. 12. Secondary education in 1921 and 1922. W. S. Deffenbaugh. 

No. 13. Art education: The present situation. R. B. Farnum. 

No. 14. Public education in Oklahoma. 

No. 15. The Bible in the public schools. Wm. R. Hood. 

No. 16. Statistical survey of education, 1919-20. Florence DuBois. 

No. 17. Educational surveys. E. F. Buchner. 

No. 18. Medical education, 1920-1922. N. P. Colwell. 

No. 19. Agricultural education. George A. Works. 

No. 20. Recent advances in instruction in music. Will Earhart and C. N. Boyd. 
No. 21. Specimen junior high school programs of study. W. S. Deffenbaugh. 

No. 22. Educational work of the Knights of Columbus. Mark J. Sweany. 

No. 23. The social studies in civic education. Edgar Dawson. 

No. 24. Educational extension. Charles G. Maphis. 

No. 25. Recent developments in educational journalism. W. C. Ryan, jr. 

No. 26. Educational work of the Young Women’s Christian Association. 

No. 27. Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. Prepared under the di¬ 
rection of Walter C. John. 

No. 28. Vocational education. Wm. T. Bawden. 

No. 29. Biennial survey of education, 1918-1920. 

No. 30. An Americanization program. E. J. Irwin. 

No. 31. Americanization in the United States. John J. Mahoney. 

No. 32. Record of eurrent educational publications, May 1, 1923. 

No. 33. Educational hygiene. W. S. Small. 

No. 34. Higher education, 1920-1922. George F. Zook. 

No. 35. List of Bulletins of the Bureau of Education, 1906-1922, with index. 
Edith A. Wright. 

No. 36. Rural education. Katherine M. Cook. 

No. 37. Progressive tendencies in European education. C. W. Washburne. 
(Continued on page 3 of cover.) 


DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

IS BUREAU OF EDUCATION . 


BULLETIN, 1923, No. 42 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 

By 

BIRD T. BALDWIN 

Assisted by MADORAH SMITH 

IOWA CHILD WELFARE RESEARCH STATION 
UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 


[Advance sheets from the Biennial Survey ol Education 

1920-1922] 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1923 























ADDITIONAL COPIES 

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAT BE PROCURED FROM 
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 

AT 

10 CENTS PER COPY 

PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS 
COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY 11, 1922 


LIBRARY OF CON G ft 1 5,0 

RECEIVED 

AUG 30 1926 


DOCUMENTS ni',‘ 


- 1 Kj 








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. A \e 

CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Introduction_ 1 

Conferences_ 1 

National educational organizations_ 1 

Foundations_ 2 

Research bureaus_ 3 

Experimental schools_ 6 

Periodicals dealing with educational research_ 6 

Costs and finances_'_ 8 

Buildings, grounds, and equipment_ 9 

School attendance and enrollment_ 10 

Retardation and elimination- 11 

Organization and administration- 11 

Teaching and supervisory staff_ 15 

Methods of teaching and learning- 18 

Methods of study_ 21 

The curriculum--.- 22 

Health_I- 44 

Vocational guidance- 46 

Selected surveys- 47 

Bibliography- 52 


hi 
























CHAPTER XXI. 
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 

By Bird T. Baldwin, assisted by Madorah Smith. 


I. INTRODUCTION. 

The past two years have witnessed a substantial growth in the 
number of scientific studies in education from the empirical and 
experimental points of view. The scientific method which for the 
past decade has been most prominently associated with investiga¬ 
tions in educational psychology is also being applied with increas¬ 
ing success to costs and finance, buildings, grounds and equipment, 
organization and administration, the curriculum, and surveys in 
special fields of education. This biennial review aims to present in 
brief form the principal contributions in the main fields of educa- 
ton, excluding “mental tests.” An effort has been made to show the 
influence of research organizations, research bureaus, foundations, 
laboratory schools, and educational periodicals for the years 1921 
and 1922. 


II. CONFERENCES. 

Among the most stimulating organizations for fostering the scien¬ 
tific approach to contemporary educational problems and pro¬ 
cedure may be mentioned the recent tendency for universities and 
teacher-training colleges to devote a week to educational confer¬ 
ences. Annual reports for the past two years are now available 
from the San Jose Teachers’ College, Calif.; Ohio State Educational 
Conference at the State University; Annual Schoolmen’s Week at 
the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Minnesota ; 
Florida High School Principals’ Conference at the University of 
Florida Teachers’ College. 

III. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS. 

A large number of educational organizations, national and local, 
are now actively engaged in studying various phases of educational 
problems and policies. Among the organizations that have empha¬ 
sized the research aspects of education may be mentioned the Ameri¬ 
can Council of Education, Washington, D. C., which studies the 
larger questions of educational policy. 


489 



490 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

The Educational Research Association is organized to encourage 
the establishment of bureaus of educational research and to promote 
the improvement of school efficiency. .The membership to this 
organization is attested by the qualifications for educational re¬ 
search. The association aims to unify the activities of workers 
throughout the country, to correlate the efforts of those who are 
originating, organizing, and directing educational investigations 
and experiments. 

The Rational Society for the Study of Education has for many 
years promoted investigations and discussions on educational ques¬ 
tions. The Rational Society of College Teachers of Education holds 
annual meetings and issues reports and monographs on problems 
dealing with the professional phases of education. The section of 
the American Association for the Advancement of Science has ex¬ 
tensive programs in scientific experimental education annually. 

To the above association should be added the Phi Delta Kappa, 
a professional educational fraternity having a membership of 4,500 
in 26 of the leading universities of the country. This fraternity 
supports “ the highest educational ideals and encourages an un¬ 
swerving allegiance to the principles underlying public education.” 
A similar society for women, Pi Lambda Theta, now has 15 active 
chapters in this country. 

Among the other associations which issue yearbooks are the Ra¬ 
tional Association of Secondary School Principals and the Rational 
Education Association. 

IV. FOUNDATIONS. 

During the past two years there has been an increased tendency 
for foundations to furnish funds for research work in education. 
Some of these foundations have for several years been contributing 
directly or indirectly toward the advancement of education. 

The Carnegie Corporation of Rew York has made substantial 
appropriations to the American Council on Education for investiga¬ 
tions in the financing of public education in the United States. The 
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching has en¬ 
dowed a division of inquiry. Substantial funds have also been given 
to the regents of the University of the State of Rew York and the 
Teachers College, Columbia University, for research on the laws 
governing education in the State of Rew York, the preparation of 
teachers, and the study of units of intellect and capacity. 

The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching has 
organized from time to time the study of various special educational 
problems in relation to the retiring allowances and its effect on the 
advancement of teaching. 


educational research. 


491 


The Commonwealth fund has made a large number of contribu¬ 
tions to various educational research workers in various parts of 
the country. The main contributions center around ( a) Educational 
finance; ( b) curriculum studies, with special reference to teaching 
methods, learning processes, and materials of instruction; ( c) re¬ 
organization of the educational system, with special reference to 
units of administration; ( d) individual differences among pupils. 

The general education board originally was founded in 1902 for 
the promotion of education in the South, but its work is much more 
extensive now. It has contributed to the endowment of colleges, 
toward medical institutions, and increase of teachers’ salaries; made 
studies in finance; and conducted surveys of education and farm 
demonstration work. 

The Jeanes fund, for the improvement of 'flegro rural schools, 
cooperated during the session ending June 30, 1922, with public- 
school superintendents in 273 counties in 13 States. The 275 super¬ 
vising teachers, paid partly by the counties and partly through the 
Jeanes fund, visited regularly in these counties 7,850 country schools. 

The John F. Slater fund now aids 156 county training schools. 

The Rockefeller Foundation contributes to research in medicine 
and hygiene and only indirectly to educational research, but it does 
contribute to medical education, rural health demonstrations, and 
other agencies for public health. 

The Laura Spellman Rockefeller Memorial is also contributing 
funds for research work in certain phases of educational work. For 
many years the Russell Sage Foundation has maintained a division 
for educational research. 

V. RESEARCH BUREAUS. 

A recent tendency in the scientific movements of education has 
become apparent through the establishment of a large number of 
educational research bureaus throughout the United States. These 
bureaus are not only clearing houses for educational literature, intel¬ 
ligence tests, and achievement scales in subject matter and super¬ 
vision, but also active laboratories for educational experiments and 
demonstrations. The movement is developing so rapidly that a com¬ 
plete list is difficult to secure. The 80 centers listed below will 
furnish a tangible index of the present status of this development in 
the empirical approach to the science of education. 

1. CITY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH BUREAU. 1 

Aberdeen, S. Dak. M. P. Staker, director, bureau of educational measurements. 
Akron, Ohio. A. O. Heck, director, bureau of educational research, public 

schools. 

1 In the preparation of this list material assistance has been rendered by John K. 
Norton, director of research of the National Education Association. 




492 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 


Ardmore, Okla. H. D. Rinsland, director, bureau of research, city schools. 

Atlanta, Ga. H. H. Bixler, director of educational research, board of edu¬ 
cation. 

Baltimore, Md. J. L. Stenquist, director of educational research, public 
schools. 

Beaumont, Tex. Clara Mallory, director, educational research, 1016 Liberty 
Street. 

Berkeley, Calif. Virgil E. Dickson, director, bureau of research and guidance. 

Birmingham, Ala. W. E. Putman, director of research department, board 
of education, Administration Building, 2030 Park Avenue N. 

Boston, Mass. Arthur Kallene, assistant director, bureau of research, Hunt¬ 
ington Avenue. 

Chicago, Ill. A. B. Wright, director of statistics and reference. 

Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Cleveland, Ohio. C. H. Mann, acting director of reference and research. 

Cuyahoga County, Ohio. Full-time assistant superintendent in charge of 
educational research. 

Denver, Colo. Emma M. Brown, director, bureau of research, public schools; 
George W. Frazier, bureau of educational research, public schools. 

Detroit, Mich. P. T. Rankin, bureau of educational research. 

Duluth, Minn. Ray Latham, assistant superintendent, department of elemen¬ 
tary education. 

Des Moines, Iowa. 

Emporia, Kans. D. A. Worcester, director, bureau of educational measure¬ 
ments, Kansas State Normal. 

Fresno, Calif. Miss Mary B. Cummings, director of department of research, 

Grand Rapids, Mich. C. D. Dawson, assistant superintendent of schools. 

Hibbing, Minn. J. W. Richardson, director, educational research. 

Highland Park, Mich. H. C. Daley, director, survey department. 

Honolulu, Hawaii. Katherine Murdock, director of research, Hanshanoli 
School. 

Indianapolis, Ind. Murray A. Dalman, director of research, reference and 
statistics. 

Jackson, Mich. Helen Davis, director, educational and mental measurements. 

Kansas City, Mo. George Melcher, director, bureau of educational research, 
Library Building. 

Lev iston, Idaho. C. L. Harlan, department of educational measurements, 
Lewiston State Normal. 

Little Rock, Ark. Department of educational measurements. G. T. Huckaly, 
supervisor. 

Long Beach, Calif. E. P. Branson, director, bureau of educational research, 
city public schools. 

Los Angeles, Calif. A. H. Sutherland, director, department of psychology and 
educational research. 

Louisville, Ky. B. W. Hartley, director, bureau of educational measurements. 

Martins Ferry, Ohio. Mrs. Margaret Brainerd, director of educational re¬ 
search. 

Minneapolis, Minn. Dr. J. Brueckner, Bureau of Educational Research. 

New York City. Eugene Nifenecker, director of reference, research, and 
statistics. 

Newark, N. J. E. D. Sexton, assistant superintendent, department of reference 
and research. 

New Orleans, La. 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


493 


Oakland, Calif. Virgil E. Dickson, director, bureau of research and guidance. 

Omaha, Nebr. L. O. Smith, assistant superintendent in charge of research. 

Pasadena, Calif. W. H. Hughes, director of research. 

Pittsburgh, Pa. J. F. Guy, director of research and measurement, 720 Fulton 
Building. 

Rochester, N. Y. J. P. O’Hern, assistant superintendent in charge of research. 

Santa Ana, Calif. Mary B. Henry, director, research and guidance. 

St. Louis, Mo. F. L. Wiley, director of tests and measurements. 

St. Paul, Minn. L. L. Everly, director of research. 

Seattle, Wash. Fred C. Ayer, director, department of research. 

Trenton, N. J. J. M. McCallie, bureau of educational research and efficiency. 

Virginia, Minn. W. A. Justice, director of research. 

West Allis, Wis. T. L. Torgenson, director, educational research, city schools. 

Youngstown, Ohio. Henrietta V. Race, director, bureau of educational and 
mental measurements, board of education. 

2. STATE AND UNIVERSITY BUREAUS FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 

California. Whittier State School. J. Harold Williams, director bureau of 
juvenile research. 

California. State Teachers’ College, San Jose. Bureau of research and exten¬ 
sion. 

California, University of. Bureau of research in education. Virgil Dickson, 
Berkeley and Oakland, Calif. 

Carnegie Institute of Technology. Department of educational research. E. K. 
Strong, jr., director. 

Colorado State Normal School, Gunnison, Colo. H. T. Manuel, director of edu¬ 
cational research. 

Columbia University. E. L. Thorndike, director of institute of educational 
research. 

Idaho. Lewiston State Normal. Bureau of educational measurements. C. L. 
Harlan, director. 

Illinois, University of. Bureau of educational research. W. S. Monroe, director. 

Indiana, University of. Bureau of cooperative research. H. L. Smith, director. 

Iowa Child Welfare Research Station. State University of Iowa. B. T. Bald¬ 
win, director. 

Kansas State Normal, Emporia. Bureau of educational measurements. D. A. 
Worcester, director. 

Kansas, University of. Bureau of administrative research. F. J. Kelly, di¬ 
rector. 

Michigan, University of. Bureau of education, reference, and research. Di¬ 
rector, Clifford Woody. 

Minnesota, University of. State board of education research bureau, St. Paul, 
Minn. Frederick Kuhlmann, director. 

Nebraska, University of. Teachers’ College, bureau of educational measure¬ 
ments. Charles Fordyce, director. 

New York, State University. J. Cayce Morrison, specialist in educational meas¬ 
urements. 

North Dakota, University of. Bureau of educational measurements. F. M. 
Garver, director. 

Ohio State University. Bureau of educational research. B. R. Buckingham, 
director. 

Oregon, University of. Bureau of educational research. C. A. Gregory, 


director. 

91348°—24-32 



494 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

Pennsylvania. State Normal School, Bloomsburg. Bureau of educational re¬ 
search. J. P. Hering, director. 

Pennsylvania. Institute for the Instruction of the Blind, Overbrook. Depart¬ 
ment of research, Samuel P. Hayes, director. 

Pennsylvania, University of. Leroy A. King. Bureau of educational meas¬ 
urements. 

South Dakota. Northern normal and industrial schools, Aberdeen. Bureau 
of educational research. 

Virginia, University of. 

Wisconsin. State Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. Dr. W. 
J. Oslum, director of educational measurements. 

VI. EXPERIMENTAL SCHOOLS. 

Another approach to research in education is through the labora¬ 
tory and experimental schools affiliated with colleges and universi¬ 
ties. These are becoming an integral part of the best schools of 
education and represent the logical outcome of the earlier demon¬ 
stration and practice schools which are also of significant value in 
developing a science of education. 

College and university laboratory schools are now organized at 
Bryn Mawr, University of California, University of Chicago, Co¬ 
lumbia University, Drake University, George Peabody College for 
Teachers, University of Illinois, Indiana University, State Univer¬ 
sity of Iowa, Louisiana State College, Miami University, University 
of Minnesota, University of Missouri, University of Nebraska, New 
York State College for Teachers, University of Oklahoma, Univer¬ 
sity of Oregon, University of Pittsburgh, Smith College, University 
of Wisconsin, University of Wyoming, and Winthrop College. 

Among the experimental schools that are aiding in advancing 
education in the empirical field are the so-called schools for progres¬ 
sive education, such as the Francis W. Parker School, in Chicago; 
the Bureau of Educational Measurements, in New York; the Child 
Education Foundation and Children’s University School, in New 
York; the Fairhope Organic School, in Alabama; the Park School, 
in Baltimore; the Shady Hill School, in Massachusetts; the Play 
School, in Berkeley, Calif.; and approximately 40 others with a 
similar point of view. 

A longer list of progressive public schools in various sections of 
the country could easily be cited whose experimentation is exten¬ 
sively carried out in all phases of school administration and in¬ 
struction. 

VII. PERIODICALS DEALING WITH EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 

No factor has contributed more to the dissemination of the scien¬ 
tific point of view in education than the splendid cooperation of 
journals in this and allied fields. A large number of these maga- 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


495 


zines and monographs provide for the publication of experimental 
and statistical studies, with ample facilities for the inclusion of 
charts, tables, and diagrams. The principal periodicals contribut¬ 
ing directly to the research phases of education are: 

American School Board Journal. Monthly. The Bruce Publishing Co., 354-364 
Milwaukee Street, Milwaukee Wis. Edited by William G. Bruce. 
Educational Administration and Supervision, including Teacher Training. 
Monthly. Warwick & York, Baltimore, Md. Edited by W. C. Bagley, 
W. W. Charters, L. D. Coffman, A. Inglis, D. Snedden, G. D. Strayer. 
Educational Review. Monthly. Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y. 
Edited by Frank P. Graves. 

Elementary School Journal. Monthly, September to June. University of Chi¬ 
cago Press, 5822 Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Ill. Edited by the faculty of the 
School of Education of the University of Chicago. 

Journal of Applied Psychology. Quarterly. Indiana University Press, Bloom¬ 
ington, Ind. Edited by James P. Porter and William F. Book. 

Journal of Educational Psychology. Monthly, except June, July, and August. 

Baltimore, Warwick & York. Managing editor, Harold O. Rugg. 

Journal of Educational Research. Monthly, except July and August. Official 
organ of the Educational Research Association. Public School Publishing 
Co., Bloomington, Ill. Edited by B. R. Buckingham. 

Journal of Experimental Psychology. Bimonthly. Princeton, N. J., Psycho¬ 
logical Review Co. Edited by John B. Watson. 

Mental Hygiene. Quarterly. Published by the National Committee for Mental 
Hygiene, 27 Columbia Street, Albany, N. Y. Edited by Frankwood E. 
Williams. 

Pedagogical Seminar. Quarterly. Worcester, Mass. Edited by G. Stanley 
Hall. 

Psychological Bulletin. Monthly. Princeton, N. J., Psychological Review Co. 
Edited by Shepherd I. Franz. 

Psychological Index. Annual. Princeton, N. J., Psychological Review Co. 
Edited by Madison Bentley. 

Research Bulletin of the National Education Association. Published in Jan- 
nary, March, May, September, and November by the research division of 
the N. E. A., 1201 Sixteenth Street NW., Washington, D. C. 

Science. Weekly. The Science Press, 11 Liberty Street, Utica, N. Y. Edited 
by J. McKeen Cattell. 

School and Society. Weekly. The Science Press, 11 Liberty Street, Utica, 
N. Y. Edited by J. McKeen Cattell. 

School Review. Monthly, except July and August. University of Chicago 
Press, 5822 Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Ill. Edited by the faculty of the School 
of Education, University of Chicago. 

School Science and Mathematics. Monthly. East Seventy-second Place, Chi¬ 
cago, Ill. Edited by Charles H. Smith. 

Teachers College Record. Every two months, except July. Bureau of Publi¬ 
cations, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Edited 
by J. E. Russell. 

Among the most significant monograph series may be mentioned 
the following: 

Archives of Psychology, from Columbia University, frequently 
deals with the psychology of the learning process. 


496 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

Educational monographs, issued by the Society of College Teach¬ 
ers of Education, present studies for discussion at annual meetings 
of the society. 

Educational Psychology monographs, published by Warwick & 
York, Baltimore, report extensive studies in the field of educational 
psychology in book form. 

Journal of Educational Research monographs, printed by the 
Public-School Publishing Co., of Bloomington, Ill., include longer 
studies of the same type appearing in the journal. 

The National Society for the Study of Education Yearbooks, also 
printed by the Public-School Publishing Co., are discussed at the 
annual meetings of the society. Many of the yearbooks are the 
result of cooperative work by committees of the society. 

Psychological monographs, issued by the Psychological Review 
Co., Princeton, N. J., appear as separate studies of particular psycho- 
educational problems. 

Supplementary education monographs, edited by the faculty of 
the School of Education of the University of Chicago, present a 
body of scientific and practical material on reading, arithmetic, 
penmanship, algebra, home economics, kindergarten-primary educa¬ 
tion, the curriculum, the student population of American secondary 
schools, and the administrative organization of elementary schools 
and high schools. 

Teachers College Contributions to Education are published by 
the board of publications of Teachers College, Columbia University, 
and present serial studies in the history and philosophy of education, 
educational psychology, kindergarten, elementary and secondary 
education, educational administration, and related fields. 

United States Department of Interior Bulletins are issued by the 
Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., and include surveys, re¬ 
ports, and the results of investigations. 

In addition to the above, education monographs are also issued 
from time to time by the Universities of California, Harvard, Illi¬ 
nois, Indiana, Iowa, Johns Hopkins, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. 

VIII. COSTS AND FINANCES. 2 

Studies in public-school finance have been made for the States of 
Colorado, Iowa, Minnesota, and Wyoming by Swift (15), Russell 
(12), Swift and del Plains (16), and Slade (13), Holy (6) and 
Lindsay (8) (9) have contributed to the Iowa survey. Other sur¬ 
veys in press are: For California, by Cubberley; New York, by 
Strayer; and Illinois, by Morrison. Swift has made a comparative 
study of State policies in public-school finance. The National Com- 


2 The numbers in parentheses in the text refer to items in the bibliography, pp. 52-77. 




EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


497 


mittee of the Chamber of Commerce, Cooperation with the Public 
Schools (10), has published a report on its inquiry Number III, 
relating to boards of education and the receipts and expenditures of 
urban public schools. Frasier (4) has studied the data for 169 cities 
in order to determine the factors of efficiency, and concludes that 
the city with an elected board and with financial independence has a 
better chance for an efficient school system. 

Carter and Thiesen (3) report on the advisability of publicity 
campaigns for school support. Burgess (2) has published a book 
on the Trends of School Cost, and the National Education As¬ 
sociation (11) has published a bulletin of Facts on the cost of public 
education, dealing with the increasing cost, salaries, and profes¬ 
sional status of teachers. 

Johnson (7) has studied the teacher’s load and cost of each item 
through a questionnaire. 

In university and college finance there is a Bureau of Education 
(5) bulletin on the expenses of women college students; a study by 
Stevens (14) on cost per student hour of different subjects and 
departments in the University of Washington. But the most ex¬ 
tensive study in college and university finance is by Arnett (1) and 
includes a study of receipts, disbursements, endowments, plant, ac¬ 
counting, reports, and organization. 

Swift (17) has written a monograph presenting the most signi¬ 
ficant conclusions in an extensive study of school finance in a number 
.of States continued over a period of several years. 

IX. BUILDINGS, GROUNDS, AND EQUIPMENT. 

Bulletins dealing with buildings and grounds and allied topics, 
published by the Bureau of Education, are on high-school buildings 
and grounds (2), school grounds and play (4), the housing and 
equipment of kindergartens (1), public-school dormitories (9), and 
teachers’ homes (12). There is also a study of the functions and 
administration of school janitors (6). 

Textbook selection .—Two books have been published dealing with 
the selection of textbooks. One of these by Maxwell (10) gives score 
cards; a general one to use in judging all texts and specific cards for 
different subjects, but few of the objective criteria have been scien¬ 
tifically determined. The other study is by Franzen and Knight (5) 
and consists of two parts—judging high-school texts in literature 
by the criterion of interest, and geographies by the criterion of com¬ 
prehension by means of reading tests constructed from the text of 
five series. Horn (8) suggests that book companies develop silent 
reading manuals, the outstanding characteristics of which should be 


498 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

these: (1) They should be rich in factual and informational data; 
(2) the content of the selections should be worth while; (3) most 
of the selections should be of sufficient length; (4) some selections 
should contain data given in great detail; (5) some selections should 
be preceded by guiding problems; (6) each selection should be 
followed by appropriate comprehension tests and tests to measure 
organizing ability; (7) the book should contain an excellent index 
and table of contents; (8) the mechanical make-up of the book 
should be good. 

Libraries .—On libraries, we have a comparison of public library 
facilities of different States by Miller (11) ; of university libraries 
in 1915 and 1921 by Reeder (13); a study of high-school library 
book selection from the viewpoint of a science teacher by Glenn (7) ; 
and a study of standardization of library work and equipment for 
history by a committee of the Mississippi Valley Historical Asso¬ 
ciation (3). 

X. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE AND ENROLLMENT. 

Ensign (6) has made a study of the development of legislation for 
compulsory education in relation to child labor. Another study, in 
The American Child (9), deals with the effect on child labor in 
agriculture of compulsory attendance laws. Bonner (1) (2) (3) 
has studied the effectiveness of the compulsory attendance laws of 
each State. 

Walters (10) (11) (12) has given annual reports of enrollment 
statistics in several colleges and universities. There are also Bureau 
of Education bulletins on the subject. Koos (7) (8) has studied 
the residential distribution of college students from the point of view 
of desirable locations for junior colleges. Byrne (4) has studied 
high-school enrollments and determined the ratio to population in 
43 large cities. West and Koos (13) have tried to estimate the size 
of freshman classes in 1940 from high-school enrollment. Counts 
(5) has studied the parental occupation of high-school pupils in 
four cities in relation to progress through school, curriculum 
elected, and plans for after graduation. 

Town (9a) has made an analytic study of a group of 5 and 
6 year old children in order to determine what kind of children 
the Iowa homes are sending to the Iowa schools. Each child was 
given a physical, anthropometric, speech, and mental examination. 
One important conclusion reached is that the basis of physical 
defects and character defects is already fixed when the child first 
enters school. 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


499 


XI. RETARDATION AND ELIMINATION. 

Most of the studies in this line are in connection with intelligence 
tests. There are a number of studies on the value of intelligence 
tests in prognosis and the relation between failures and mental 
tests which do not fall within the scope of this bulletin. Kelly 
and Loomis (5) have made a study of the extent of retardation in 
one-room rural schools in Kansas and compared it with the retar¬ 
dation in town schools and found it greater. Gwinn (4) has found 
that changing from school to school affects the child’s progress. 
McCormick (7), in a study of high-school failures in La Crosse, 
found important factors to be the attitude and study habits of the 
pupil; cooperation between student, parent, and teacher; person¬ 
ality; professional preparation and attitude of teacher, also intelli¬ 
gence of pupils. 

Smith (10), in a study of high-school failures, found the per¬ 
centage of failure, increased from year to year, was greatest in the 
modern language curricula and in English and mathematics; the 
tendency to fail varied directly as age of pupil on entrance and 
inversely with the amount of home study. A study by Rogers (9) 
of retardation of both grades and high school in Baltimore showed 
irregular attendance and late entrance or early learning to be the 
causes in 26| per cent of cases; physical defects or illness in 9 per 
cent; indifference in 2RL per cent and low ability in 42^ per cent. 
Forty-two per cent of the failures were in English and 41 per cent 
in mathematics. Buckingham (1) reports a successful experiment 
in promoting failing pupils on probation. 

The chief cause of elimination of pupils in Phoenixville, Pa., was 
found by Doughton (2) to be desire or necessity to work. Eaton 
(3) studied the scholarship of pupils leaving school and found an 
average of 2.04 failures per pupil for the group leaving as against 
0.8 for the entire school. Learning (6) found from a study of 908 
children applying for working certificates that most of them left 
because of dissatisfaction with school and were not from the suc¬ 
cessful group in school. 

Nifenecker (80) has made a study of retardation in New York 
City and pleads for greater flexibility in grading, in course of study, 
in methods of advancing pupils, and for a more “ purposive 
program.” 

XII. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. 

The junior high-school movement is the outstanding feature in 
school organization, particularly in the Middle West and West, and 
many studies have been made as to its extent. Among these are 
reports by J. H. and J. C. Clement (15) (a-b), Philips (61), Pratt 


500 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

(66), and Smith (74), as to the status of organization and adminis¬ 
tration of junior high schools in large cities. Rodgers (72) has 
studied particularly the curricula and programs of 101 schools. 
Lyman (50) (51) (52) and Gould (33) have described the organi¬ 
zation, curricula, buildings, methods, and activities of certain typical 
junior high schools. Spain, Moehlman, and Harrington (77) have 
prepared a bulletin dealing with similar topics in great detail on 
the Detroit intermediate schools. Koos (46), through a canvass of 
educational literature and the securing of ratings by 124 judges, has 
arrived at a ranking of the relative importance of the peculiar func¬ 
tions of junior high schools. 

One study compares the effectiveness of the junior high school 
with that of the old 8-4 plan. This is by Briggs (9) in Los Angeles 
to determine to what extent junior high school pupils persist in 
school and to what extent secondary education electives are eco¬ 
nomically offered in the “ intermediate ” school. He found a higher 
per cent of high-school graduates had come from “ intermediate ” 
than from “ elementary ” schools and that the “ intermediate-school ” 
graduates bring on an average 10.2 credits to high schools, are more 
stimulated to earn credit in summer school, and that 82 per cent of 
them continue the electives begun in intermediate school, Briggs 
(9) has also made a study on extra-curricular activities in junior 
high schools and published a text on the junior high school (10). 

Another type of school of increasing importance is the junior 
college. Besides a study of distribution of enrollment, L. V. Koos 
(45) has made a comparative study of the curricula of 58 public 
and private junior colleges. 

The rural school is another type of organization being studied. 
F. H. Koos (44) has compared it with larger organizations as 
to cost, expenditures, education, salary, and tenure of teachers. 
Brown (11) has made an intensive study of the school in a Michigan 
village from the point of view of showing the inequality of educa¬ 
tional opportunity. 

Chapman and Eby (14) and Frost (30) have made comparative 
studies by educational measurements of the achievement of chil¬ 
dren in country and city schools. The evidence in both studies is 
strongly in favor of the larger school systems. 

Rapeer (67) has published a text on the consolidated rural school, 
most of the material of which is based on reports, investigations 
and observations of acthal conditions, and deals with the topics of 
history, administration, organization, curriculum, methods, and rural 
life needs. 

The platoon school, individual system, and Dalton plan are three 
types of organization being tried out. Spain (76) and Bankes (2) 
describe the former type as being developed in Detroit and Akron. 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


501 


Washburne (87) describes the individual system as carried on in 
Winnetka and gives the result of a questionnaire sent the teachers, 
all of whom approved the system as a whole and reported. chil¬ 
dren saved from failure by the method. Dewey (19) and Park- 
hurst (60) both have described the Dalton plan in operation. 

The extent of provision and type of work provided for mental 
defectives has been studied by Anderson (1). Voorhees (85) has 
investigated the growth in knowledge of academic subjects and 
made a follow-up study of pupils in a prevocational room for the 
backward. Poole (63) (64) and Richards (71) report on diagnostic 
teaching of a few cases of backward and difficult children. Wallin 
(86) has made a study of the achievement of subnormal children, 
and Reamer (70) of the deaf in educational tests. 

The provision made for exceptional children in the schools has 
been studied by Gesell (31). J. L. Horn (38) has studied the rea¬ 
sons for leaving school of an eighth grade class in Oakland and 
urges that funds should be available to support highly endowed 
children of poor parents so that they may continue in school. Studies 
have also been made by Omans (58), Freeman (29), Hughes (39), 
and Dvorak (23). 

The Nineteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
of Education (35) is given up to classroom problems in-the educa¬ 
tion of gifted children. Mr. and Mrs. Omans (59) describe an ex¬ 
periment in a special class for gifted children at Ypsilanti. 

The value of a grouping of children by abilities and consequent 
changes in school procedure is reported on by Cox (17), Henderson 
(34), King (43),Mahony (53), Spain (76), Rapp (68),Kuntz (47), 
Odell (57), Carback (13), Hines (36), Cole (16), Berry (4), Glass 
(32), Stetson (79), Branson (6), Wilkerson (26), Dickson (22), 
Dawson (20), (21), Fordyce (27), Terman (81), Pintner and Mar¬ 
shall (62), Callihan (12), Stockton, Davis, and Cronin (80), Kent 
(42), Lowell (49), Neff (25), Breed and Breslich (7), and Thiesen 
(82). 

The relation of size of class to school efficiency has been studied 
by the Illinois Bureau of Educational Research (84). Very little 
difference was found between the work of large and small classes 
in either elementary or high school. Monroe (56) also found very 
little relation between sectioning a class and the effectiveness of in¬ 
struction. Porter (65) reports on the effects of segregation by sex 
on scholarship in a Detroit high school. He found the boys’ marks 
showed 8 per cent improvement and the girls were lowered 18 per 
cent when separated. These marks showed closer correlation with 
intelligence test than did their marks before separation. 


502- BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

Time distribution in Louisiana schools (24) has been studied by 
the Callender laboratory of Newcomb College in order to obtain a 
basis for a study of the most effective time distribution. 

Stark (78) has developed principles of school management 
through the study of concrete school situations. In his text he pre¬ 
sents 241 practical problems with an account of the process of their 
solution in which teachers, principles, superintendents, and parents 
take part. 

Jackson (41) and Satchell (73) have made studies of the extent 
of pupil government or participation in school administration in 
high schools. Thornton (83) has studied the extent of the women’s 
forum, or its substitutes with types of work and details of organi¬ 
zation in normal schools, colleges, and universities. 

The present system of marking has been much criticized. Franzen 
(28) suggests the use of the accomplishment quotient in school 
marks. Hopkins (37) has studied the marks given by the college 
entrance examination board of Harvard from 1902 to 1920, and 
found the distribution diverged widely from the normal curve. He 
criticizes the methods used by examiners. Beatley (3) has compared 
the standing of students in secondary school and entrance examina¬ 
tions with later marks and finds a combination of comprehensive 
examinations and secondary-school record the most effective. 

Cunningham (18) has studied the sex element in college grades 
from both men and women instructors. Westfall (88) has found 
correlations between grades in different subjects in simultaneous and 
consecutive courses and those with one, two, and three semesters 
intervening. He found the correlations decreased as time between 
taking courses increased. Rathbun (69) describes a system used in 
the University of Washington for weighting grades so as to equalize 
the difficulty of securing high grades in different departments. 

In elementary schools there are several systems of marking being 
worked out. One of these being tried is the accomplishment quotient. 
Marot (54) describes an elaborate system of school records which 
will provide information for marking changes, concrete illustrations, 
and show achievement and progress made. Kyle (48) describes a 
marking system which resulted in a close approach to the normal 
curve. Beverly (5) discusses the use of the Trabue scale by children 
in rating their own work. Hughes (40), 1920, describes a combina¬ 
tion system of supervised study, varying scope of work, and weighted 
credit. 

Two studies of types of examinations are reported—one by the 
staff of instructors in contemporary civilization in Columbia, with 
the assistance of Thorndike (89) ; the other by Monroe (56). Both 
conclude that the “ new ” examinations with questions permitting 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


503 


only one correct answer is preferable, though Monroe calls attention 
to certain limitations. 

XIII. TEACHING AND SUPERVISORY STAFF. 

The most frequent type of study in this field is that of surveys of 
the preparation or status of teachers. Such investigations as to 
status have been made of all teachers in 359 cities by the National 
Committee for Chamber of Commerce (60), of junior high school 
teachers in 99 schools (58), (57), and of Texas high-school teachers 
(62) ; of the preparation of high-school teachers in the accredited 
schools of the North Central Association (15), and another in Ore¬ 
gon (59) and Pennsylvania (50); of rural school teachers in Penn¬ 
sylvania (35); and of all teachers in Missouri (39). Other surveys* 
deal with the status of the visiting teacher (49) and the causes for 
which children are referred to her and methods employed. Burgess 
(9) (10) has studied the rate of progress in teacher preparation 
by comparison in 14 States of 1910 and 1920 statistics; Minick (43), 
the amount of practical work and practice teaching done by high- 
school teachers in Pennsylvania and New Jersey; Benson (4), 10,000 
teacher-training graduates. The study indicates the relative length 
of the tenure of trained and untrained teachers, types of curricula 
in demand, distribution of trained teachers among different types 
of schools, and occupations of graduates who did not teach. 

The most extensive study of the curricula used in teacher train¬ 
ing is that published by the Carnegie Foundation (39) dealing with 
the educational and administrative aspects of the preparation of 
teachers in State normal schools. It includes also topics on the ori¬ 
gin and growth of normal schools in the United States, particularly 
in Missouri; the government and organization of normal schools; 
the curricula and personnel of Missouri normal schools, their opera¬ 
tion, administration, and product. Foster (23) has studied the 
status of Smith-Hughes practice teaching by means of a question¬ 
naire. Coffman (12) has made a study of teacher-training depart¬ 
ments in Minnesota high schools. Williams (64) (65) has made a 
similar study of demonstration teaching and observation in 295 in¬ 
stitutions. Burnham (11) has made a survey of the teaching of 
mental hygiene, and a survey of the status of educational sociology 
has been made by Lantis (38). Gray (27), Schulte (55), and Doug¬ 
las (21) have all studied the distribution of time or assignment of 
student teachers, and Brueckner (8) describes an experiment in 
their training by means of field work. Boss (52) reports on the 
status of county teachers’ institutes in Pennsylvania. 

Anderson (2) by means of a questionnaire has arrived at three 
basic courses in education, which he describes. One he calls intro- 


504 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

ductory and informational, one theoretical and general, and the third 
a course in schoolroom procedure. 

Franzen (24) has made a comparison between general and special 
methods courses in teaching high-school subjects by means of 
analyses of outlines, notebooks on syllabi, and descriptions of both 
types of courses. He has listed the topics treated in order of frequency 
in different types of courses, and as a result of the study suggests 
standards for the two types of courses. 

The Bureau of Education has published bulletins by Koos (37) on 
standards in graduate work in education, by Cook (13) on the laws 
and regulations on the certification of teachers in different States, by 
Gleim (26) on the visiting teacher, one by Dawson (17) on the prep¬ 
aration of teachers of the social studies, and another by Cook (14) on 
the provisions for, and methods and results of, the supervision of 
rural schools in different States. 

Charles Bussell (54) presents a thesis on the improvement of the 
city elementary-school teacher while in service. It includes a survey 
of the historical background, a study of school reports to determine 
what are the present agencies in use for teacher improvement, the 
fundamentals of improvement, and an outline of the steps through 
which a teacher must pass in becoming the mature master. 

Waples (63) gives a table of the relative value of college educa¬ 
tion courses obtained by gathering the opinion of high-school prin¬ 
cipals. Lowery (40) reports a study of the attitude of college 
students toward teaching. 

Greenan (28) has studied the distribution of time of East Orange 
high-school teachers for teaching, clerical, advisory, and disciplinary 
work. ^ 

Douglas (21) has made a study of the market for prospective high- 
school teachers. A similar study would be of value to colleges of 
education. 

Morton (46) reports a study in grading examinations from which 
he concludes that this method of licensing teachers is too inaccurate. 

Studies as to the characteristics desirable for a teacher are re¬ 
ported by Osburn (48) and Smith (56), who deal especially with 
industrial teachers; and by Hanly (29) and Dolch (20), who 
take it up from the child’s viewpoint. The outstanding contribution 
in this field is Knight’s (36). He had 153 teachers rated by the 
mutual ratings of supervisors and pupils and against these ratings 
correlated objective facts. Correlations with age, experience, and 
quality of hand writing were too low for prognostic purposes, but 
ability to pass a professional test, normal-school scholarship, and in 
the case of the high-school teacher, intelligence seemed significant, 
C. O. Davis (16), by means of a questionnaire, has arrived at the 
following duties of a high-school principal: 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


505 


1. To formulate a vision and a policy for the school * * * and to 
communicate this vision to his entire staff. 

2. To lead in the formulation of ways and means for realizing their vision 
and policy. 

3. To supervise instruction, inspire teachers and pupils, coordinate and 
articulate efforts. 

4. To serve as the school’s agent before the public. 

5. To share confidences with his teachers and pupils; * * * delegate to 

them * * * responsibilities; * * * and unify the work of the entire 

school. 

Hudelson (31) has studied the actual distribution of time between 
different duties by principals in West Virginia. He concludes that 
they need clerical assistance. McClure (41) reports a study of re¬ 
quisites for appointment and duties of principals in 17 to 20 large 
cities. He found much discrepancy between theory and practice, too 
much time given clerical work, too little time to supervision. 

Morrison (44) has made a study of supervision from the teacher’s 
viewpoint, from which he concludes that the principal could help 
most by suggestions, inspiration, cooperation, help in discipline, and 
the discussion of problems of instruction in teachers’ meetings ; the 
assistant superintendent by demonstration teaching, organizing 
teachers’ meetings, giving teachers self-confidence; the supervisor 
in suggestions, outlines, and personal conferences; the department 
heads in helping to prepare outlines and lessons, grouping children 
by ability, and in improving technique of teaching. 

Gist and King (25) made a study of the principal only from the 
same viewpoint. The most mentioned ways in which he could help 
were in the care of the exceptional child, with the course of study, 
as a professional leader, in prompt delivery of supplies and equip¬ 
ment, and by a well-defined system of management. 

Morrison (45) has made a study of the legal status of the city- 
school superintendent, using as sources statutes, historical writings, 
general principles of government, and judgments of leaders in 
education. The first of these sources is his main reliance. Some 
conditions revealed are the predominance of small boards, a four- 
year term of office, and the disappearing ward representation in 
school boards. The powers in which the superintendent is most 
nearly independent are enforcement of attendance, granting of 
working papers, making of formal reports, and supervision of in¬ 
struction. 

Almack (1) has studied the duties and training of city superin¬ 
tendents by means of a questionnaire and a study of published rules 
and of texts. He found the appointment of school officers and 
teachers, supervision, teachers’ meetings, making reports, enforcing 
rules, attending board meetings, and the study of other school sys¬ 
tems among the more frequently mentioned duties. 


506 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

S. W. Johnson (33) reports a study by questionnaire of the re¬ 
lations between superintendents and school boards in Iowa, taking 
up such topics as causes of failure, factors in success, difficult prob¬ 
lems for board and for superintendents, the manner of selecting 
the board, and closing with recommendations as a result of the 
Study. 

Struble (61) has studied school-board personnel, classifying board 
members as to vocations, age, sex, experience, number of their chil¬ 
dren, and miscellaneous factors, and rating board members as to 
their influence, valuableness, progressiveness, and leadership. 

There have been several studies on salaries made, but not so many 
as in 1920. Some of these are by the Massachusetts Department of 
Education (42) of conditions in that State; Eaves (22) on old-age 
support of women teachers, also in Massachusetts; and the National 
Education Association (47) on salaries in cities of 100,000 popu¬ 
lation and over. Bonner (6) made two studies, one of high-school 
teachers’ salaries, the other (5) dealing particularly with oppor¬ 
tunities for advance and concluding that the salaries of experienced 
teachers especially should be increased. Arnett (3), in 1921, made 
a study of salaries of college teachers. Deffenbaugh (18) has a 
study of the salaries of administrative officers and their assistants 
in large cities. Hertzog (30) discusses State maintenance of teach¬ 
ers in training as a solution of teacher shortage. 

The value of use of intelligence and standardized tests in super¬ 
vision is shown in studies by Brooks (7), with rural schools, Dick¬ 
son and Norton (19), Ruch (53), Kallom (34), Rogers and Baker 
(51), and Johnson (32). The last two studies consider especially 
their value in evaluating different methods of instruction. 

XIV. METHODS OF LEARNING AND TEACHING. 

In the field of general methods the project method and socialized 
recitation continue in the foreground. Library Leaflet, No. 17, Feb¬ 
ruary, 1923, of the Bureau of Education (26) gives a list of ref¬ 
erences on the project method in education which is quite complete. 
Parker (16) has written a series of articles on the thinking process, 
showing the importance of problem solving, presenting illustrative 
school lessons and rules for stimulating thinking, and a biographical 
study of how eminent men think. 

Taylor (23) has compared 30 lessons taught by the socialized 
method with those that were teacher-directed and found the social¬ 
ized classes gave better results. 

A comparison of the traditional method and a freer method tried in 
first grade is reported by McCall, Chassell, and Hollingwortli (14). 
The free group in first grade made less progress in seven tests and 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 507 

more in three; in second grade less progress in four and more in one, 
but the differences were very slight. 

Eichardson (19) discusses what he calls the campaign method, 
defining a campaign as characterized by a recognized need, definite 
time limits, organized effort to stimulate and sustain interest, with its 
success resting upon others than its organizers. He reports three 
campaigns in the four fundamental processes which resulted in 
marked improvement. 

Linke (13) describes an experiment in teaching in response to 
children’s questions. A comparison of the lecture method with the 
question and answer method, tried in 11 high schools, is reported 
by Alderman (1). He found that the former method was slightly 
better in grades 10 to 12 and the latter better in grades 7 to 9. Pupils 
of superior ability did better by the lecture method, those in the 
fourth quartile by the other method. Two studies of presenting 
matter to college students by Holton (8) and Horne (9) both favored 
the discussion method. 

Hunter (10) compared the textbook, lecture, and developmental 
method and found they ranked, for immediate retention, develop¬ 
mental first, lecture second, textbook third; for delayed retention, lec¬ 
ture first, developmental second, and textbook third; for power, 
developmental first, textbook second, and lecture third. He also com¬ 
pared oral developmental with laboratory manual and found the first 
method superior. In an experiment comparing visual and oral in¬ 
struction he found the oral method preferable. 

Weber (27) has studied the effectiveness of visual aids in seventh 
grade instruction. He found showing films method superior to an 
oral presentation when the subject matter was largely descriptive, 
but in another experiment where four methods of presentation were 
used—films, film-lecture, oral, and printed descriptions—the film 
method did not secure such superiority. Measured by ability to give 
information verbally, the first methods gave approximately the 
same results, but measured by the ability to draw, the visual method 
was distinctly superior. 

Monroe (15) has made a study of the types of learning required 
in different school subjects and their relative difficulty. He found 
the most frequent types are: 

Type I, comprehension of material read plus memorization, so that it can 
be reproduced; Type IV, obtaining information for the purpose of solving 
problems or answering questions; Type XI, drawing valid conclusions from 
given data or statements; Type IX, a clear comprehension of the essential 
conditions of a problem which is to be solved. 

The types varied for different subjects. The most difficult types 
from the standpoint of the pupil are Types XI and I above. Type 
XI is also the most difficult with reference to instruction. 


508 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

Robinson and Heron (20) studied the effect of variations in 
length on memorizing by the use of nonsense syllables, and found, 
with increasing length of material, a negative acceleration in the 
memory curves. Laird, Remmers, and Peterson (12) found that 
organization and classification of material is an aid to memorizing 
and that it is probably more beneficial, the more meaningful the 
material. 

The value of interest in learning is shown in studies by Bridges 
and Dollinger (4), who found a correlation of +0.22 to +0.28 be¬ 
tween subject’s rank in interest and the grade the student received. 
Thorndike (24) obtained a correlation of +0.46 between the rank 
which a college student gives a subject for interest and the mark 
he receives in that subject in comparison to the marks he receives 
in other subjects. Freeland (6), in a year’s study of the daily learn¬ 
ing of six children, found interest to be one of the significant fac¬ 
tors, others being physical condition, mental alertness, and tenacity. 
Waples (25) has reviewed the problem of interest in education in 
a five-chapter study which takes up a classification of the literature 
of the subject, discussion of the value, the development, the social 
modification, and social expression of interest. 

Book and Noiwell (3) studied the effect of interest in improvement 
on 124 college students in four simple kinds of learning and found 
that interest in improvement served as a directive force, and con¬ 
cluded that “ interest in improvement and belief in its possibility aid 
mental adaptation and the formation of new and better methods of 
work” (pp. 354). Arps (2), in a comparison of work done with 
or without knowledge of results, arrived at a similar conclusion. 
Work without knowledge of results was reported as very deadening. 

Peaks (17) has studied the periodic variations in efficiency, sum¬ 
marizing important studies of the influence of heat, weather, 
humidity, and time of day or year on efficiency. Some of his con¬ 
clusions are that there are three periods of physical and mental 
growth in the school year, one of depression in January to March, 
and two favorable, September to December and March to June. 

Sullivan (22) studied the effect of mood upon performance and 
found it insignificant. Garrett (7) concluded'from experiments 
upon judgment that each individual has an optimum rate for ac¬ 
curacy. 

General texts on learning have been published by Kirkpatrick 
(11), who deals particularly with the place of imagination in educa¬ 
tion; Stratton (21), whose purpose was to determine the relative im¬ 
portance of special mental facilities and the transfer of training; 
Edwaids (5), whose text includes many useful suggestions with re¬ 
gard to methods of study; and Pyle (18), who reports many ex¬ 
periments in his book, The Psychology of Learning. 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


509 


XV. METHODS OF STUDY. 

Webb (8), 1920, reported on the habits of study of college students. 
He found superior students use good methods more than do poor 
students, but the majority of good methods are not used by the 
majority of students. They use better methods for examination. 
Study habits are merely picked up and students should be taught 
how to study. In another similar study by Webb (9), a comparison 
of the methods used by students of four different teachers was made 
in an attempt to prove that the habits of study should be considered 
in measuring effective teaching. 

Garth (3) reports a similar study in which he found only 4 
per cent of students were studying in “true problematic fashion.” 
The median method of study used was about half way up on the 
scale for measuring methods of study whose preparation he de¬ 
scribes. 

Elizabeth Thorndyke (7) reports on environment as a factor in 
a pupil’s study life. The data were obtained from 1,600 high-school 
pupils. Seven per cent preferred to study at home, the rest at schocd. 
The place in which they would be least interrupted was usually pre¬ 
ferred. Other reasons for preferring to study at home were more 
continuity, and chance to study aloud; for preferring to study at 
school was the fact that everyone else was studying, and that there 
was an opportunity to get help. 

Clayton (2) made a closely allied study in attitude toward school 
work and found girls and older pupils spent more time than boys, 
and younger pupils and the girls were more contented than the boys. 

Germane (4) has studied the value of outlining and summarizing 
compared with rereading with both college and grade students. He 
found the rereading group excelled those summarizing, but when 
the summary was stimulated and directed by specific problems, it 
gave the better result, and this superiority was even greater when 
writing was eliminated, especially in the grades. Yoakum (11), 
who studied the effect of a single reading, found that only a small 
proportion of material read was retained and that repeated testing 
was an efficient method of securing retention. 

Studies in memorizing still continue. Woody (10) found oral 
reading superior to silent reading in the memorization of poems for 
the majority of individuals studied. Eobinson (5) found that the 
relative merits of distributed and concentrated study of numerical 
material depends upon the total amount studied, the units into 
which it was divided, the stage at which efficiency was tested, and 
whether the criterion was accuracy or time of recall. Achilles (1) 
has made an intensive study of recall and recognition and finds a 
low but positive correlation between the processes and low correla- 
91348°—24-33 



510 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 


tions for recall or recognition of different materials. Both processes 
increase with age, and women and girls are slightly superior to men 
and boys. Skaggs (6), using nonsense syllables and poetry for 
material, found the interspersed method of reading recitation better 
than methods of grouping. 

XVI. THE CURRICULUM. 

Studies in the curriculum in general are not strictly of a research 
character, but there are several new publications that approach this 
field experimentally. 

An outstanding study is Bobbitt’s (1), which, by the method of 
examination and analysis, arrives at a statement of the specific aims 
of instruction. Bonser (2), Meriam (4), and Wells (T) have pub¬ 
lished texts on the elementary curriculum as organized about activi¬ 
ties which are based on experimentation. Part I of the Twentieth 
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (6) 
contains a collection of 295 projects, classified by grades, which have 
been tried out in different schools. The Course of Study Mono¬ 
graphs of the Berkeley public schools (8) are also the results of 
committee reports and classroom test. Chapters’ and Moore’s books 
on the curriculum have just appeared. 

Mott and Devricks (5), by means of a questionnaire addressed to 
874 high-school graduates, have rated each subject of the high- 
school curriculum as to its value for economic use, enjoyment, citizen¬ 
ship, home making, and good will. On the basis of these ratings 
they advocate a redistribution of time among the different subjects. 

Kehr (3) has made a comparative study of the college curricula 
for men and women, from which she concludes that for both sexes 
there is need for vocational guidance. 

I he Lincoln School, in New Y ork, is making a thoroughly scientific 
study of the curriculum. Similar studies are being made in the 
Universities of Iowa and Chicago. 

1. READING. 

The subject of reading has predominated in the formulation of 
curricula studies. Part II of the Twentieth Yearbook of the National 
Society for the Study of Education was devoted to the subject of 
silent reading. To this study Thiesen (53) contributed a summary 
of the evidence of previous investigations as to the factors affecting 
results m primary reading, the most important of which he finds is 
probably intelligence. Other factors showing some correlation are 
interest, supervision, quality of teaching, amount of reading, eye 
movements, vocalization, attendance, comprehension of material, na¬ 
tionality, language used at home, and presentation of words in 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


511 


context. Factors studied but on which the evidence was still incon¬ 
clusive were kindergarten training, time, and phonetics. 

Further studies in some of these factors have been made. Webb 
(59) reports correlations between Army Alpha scores and reading 
rate of +0.49 and with comprehension of +0.68; between Thurstone 
intelligence scores and reading rate of +0.58 and with compre¬ 
hension of +0.64. Hunt (31) finds correlations between Otis in¬ 
telligence and rate of reading of +0.38 and with comprehension of 
+0.48. Hunt has also found in a study of fourth and seventh 
grade children that extensive readers obtain higher scores in both 
reading rate and comprehension than do nonreaders. J. L. Green 
(23) also found a correlation between achievement in reading and 
amount done. Three experiments have been described in which 
special attention was paid to reducing vocalization. 

O’Brien (41) carried out a controlled experiment in which differ¬ 
ent types of training in rapid silent reading were tried, one of which 
differed only in special attention being given to decreasing vocaliza¬ 
tion or inner articulation. This type of training resulted in marked 
superiority in amount of improvement made. Photographic records 
of eye movements showed this improvement was accompanied by a 
reduction in the number of fixation pauses and regressive movements, 
but by little change in the length of pauses. 

The other two experiments by Waldman (57) in fourth grade, and 
by C. W. Stone (51) with college students involved several other 
factors, so that the decrease in vocalization is not the only cause 
in their success in improving the reading ability of their students. 

Buswell, by the method of photographing eye movements, has 
arrived at important conclusions reported in three different mono¬ 
graphs. In the first of these three (10) he has found by synchro¬ 
nizing the photographic records of eye movements with dictaphone 
records of the voice that good readers differ from poor readers in 
the length of eye-voice span, in the number and duration of fixation 
pauses, and in the relative length of eye-voice span in different parts 
of the sentence. 

In collaboration with Judd (34) he has made a scientific analysis 
of the various types of silent reading, comparing eye movements in 
skimming, careful reading, and study; and in the reading of simple 
prose, poetry, geography, history, and algebra texts, Latin and 
French. Most of the records showed that effort results in a narrow¬ 
ing of the span of recognition, lengthening of the fixation, and re¬ 
gressive movements, although some pupils seemed unable to change 
the level of attention. Latin pupils did not really read but puzzled 
out meanings. French pupils did much better. 

In another study, Buswell (9) traces the development of the 
reading habit from the beginning to maturity. He found such de- 


512 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

velopment to proceed by the reduction of the number and length of 
fixation pauses, and of regressive movements. Reduction in the num¬ 
ber of pauses reaches a plateau in fourth grade. In the length of 
pauses the plateau is not reached until sixth, but growth in decrease 
of regressive movements continues into college. Development is 
quite different in type after the first four years. Correlations between 
these three types of data and Gray’s oral and Monroe’s silent reading 
tests are set forth in graphs. A comparison is made of different 
methods of reading, which shows that more than one method may 
succeed in developing mature reading habits, but different methods 
show quite different curves. He also shows by an analysis of in¬ 
dividual cases how far children may deviate from the usual route 
and describes the remedial exercises used in those cases where the 
pupils had apparently deviated too far from the usual route to in¬ 
dicate probable attainment of efficiency. Breitweiser (6), in a mono¬ 
graph on training in rapid reading, reports an unpublished thesis 
by Fereshetion, of Colorado College, in which he demonstrates the 
possibility and value of pacing the eye movements in training for 
rapid reading. 

Wilson (61) has studied the effect of different types of material on 
reading ability and found that reading ability varied greatly ac¬ 
cording to the type of material read. 

Burgess (7), in a brief study, shows the advantage of group¬ 
ing according to ability; Hawley (26), the effect of clear objectives; 
and James (32), the value of using the results of measurements in 
improving reading ability. La Rue (36) reports a small experiment 
in the use of the shorthand alphabet in teaching pupils to read and 
urges its adaptation to printing as a substitute for our English 
alphabet. 

The value of rapid silent reading on ability to recall is demon¬ 
strated in experiments by Gilliland (19), Harvey (25), and O’Brien 
(41). 

Special devices tried out with success and reported are the use 
of flash cards by Watkins (58); use of practice tests involving cut¬ 
outs, pasting in picture frame, picture dictionary, and story sheets 
by Nila B. Smith (47); and sets of reading cards, calling for action 
or language responses and used by the children as a game, by 
Hoover (28). A special technique followed in the University of Chi¬ 
cago laboratory schools, resulting from experimental study, is de¬ 
scribed by Shepherd (45). 

The psychology of reading, with special references to disability, 
has also been studied by several investigators. Gates (18) includes 
spelling in his study in which he has attempted to devise a technique 
for diagnosis, to discover the factors in acquiring ability in read¬ 
ing and spelling, to ascertain the causes for disability in these lines, 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


513 


and to try out remedial measures. The defects found associated 
with disability were those of mental ability, vision, articulation, eye 
muscular control, eye movements, eye-voice span, training, emotional 
stability, and also disinclination. He found no evidence for word 
blindness. 

William S. Gray (21) reports the diagnosis and remedial treatment 
of 27 pupils backward in reading. For each case he gives a general 
description; preliminary diagnosis by means of intelligence and 
reading tests; detailed diagnosis by individual vocabulary test and 
analysis of types of difficulties; and study of eye movements and 
description of remedial instruction and its results. 

C. T. Gray (20), in his monograph on deficiencies in reading, 
analyzes reading ability, and gives a compilation of tests and methods 
of observation to be used for diagnosis which includes tests for 
vocalization, eye movements, and breathing as well as the more usual 
reading tests. He presents a critical account of remedial work car¬ 
ried on by various teachers and investigators, and summarizes leading 
publications on reading. Fernald and Keller (15) report six ex¬ 
treme cases of nonreaders and describe the method used in treating 
them, calling particular attention to the need for study of kinaes- 
thetic factors in the development of word recognition. 

Other studies dealing with disability in reading are by Anderson 
and Merton (1), Freeman (16), and Poole (44). 

Thiesen (54) has surveyed the provisions existing for individual 
differences in reading and makes suggestions as to which are of the 
greatest merit. 

So much progress has been made in research in* reading methods 
that courses and texts in teaching reading, based on scientific study, 
are beginning to appear. Among such may be listed courses out¬ 
lined by Parker (43) and McFarland (39); and on methods by 
Leonard (37), Wm. A. Smith (48), Stone (50),-Simpson (46), 
Wiley (60), Lloyd and Gray (38). Ballou (2) offers an outline of a 
normal course in beginning reading, the result of 103 questionnaires 
and opinions of 75 teachers. 

Germane and Germane (17) have written a text on silent reading 
in which the topics of silent or oral reading, speed, comprehension, 
organization, retention, questionable methods, remedial work, meas¬ 
uring, and material are discussed and the finding of the leading inves¬ 
tigations in these various lines reported. Methods and material 
suitable for each grade are outlined and lists of books and materials 
are given in the appendices. 

Studies in content of reading courses have been approached in two 
main ways: One through a study of children’s interests, the other by 
analyses of texts. 


514 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

A study of the interests of children 2 to 7 years old and of the 
phrasing they themselves use in telling stories has resulted in the 
Here and Now Story Book, by Mitchell (40). Dunn (12) has 
studied the interests of children in grades one to three, and finds the 
reading materials best liked contains the factors of plot, narration, 
conversation, morality; for boys those factors also of surprise and 
interest in animals; for girls also the factors of child interest and 
familiar experience. She found their rating of material very dif¬ 
ferent from that of adults. Jordan (33) investigated the interests 
of children from 9 to 18 years old. He found marked sex differences, 
which were greatest at 12 and 13 years old. The boys preferred 
in fiction, stories of war, scouting, school and sports, and adventure ; 
in nonfiction, “what-and-how-to-do” books, and history and biogra¬ 
phy in exciting story form. The girls preferred fiction portraying 
home and school with other types such as fairy stories, and love, 
while tales with historical background were preferred by less than 
10 per cent. They showed little interest in nonfiction. Jordan lists 
favorite authors and magazines for both boys and girls. Chamber- 
lain (11) prepares a study on the difference in reactions to English 
classics where boys and girls recite separately. Eaton (13) has 
studied reading interests in high school. Though he, too, discovered 
the greatest interest in fiction and stories, he found over half the 
boys reading voluntarily essays and travel, biography, and science; 
40 per cent reading history, 38 per cent poetry, and 26 per cent re¬ 
ligious books; over half the girls read poetry and biography, 42 
per cent religious books, 34 per cent essays and travel, 26 per cent 
history, and only 9 per cent science. He lists favorite magazines 
and authors for both sexes. 

Uhl has two studies, one (56) on junior high-school interests in 
informational reading selections which showed the pupils to be much 
interested in selections on inventions, transportation, manufacturing, 
and cost of living; the other (55), based on reactions of 529 pupils, 
and a questionnaire sent 2,253 teachers resulted in the selection 
and grading of a number of selections of reading material. De¬ 
sirable qualities included actions and character, adventure, humor, 
easy content and diction, familiarity, and portrayal of the superna¬ 
tural, kindness, and loyalty. Green (23) found better readers less 
interested in fairy tales than poor readers. 

King (35), in an investigation embracing about 4,800 children, 
has obtained a list of favorite poems for elementary school children 
which she presents, classified in order of frequency of choice, accord¬ 
ing to type of poem, and in a suggested course of study. She also 
lists the reasons given by the children for their choice. 

Hosiac’s (29) investigation in reading was carried along four 
lines: Opinions of authorities as to aims and methods of teaching 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


515 


literature; analysis of “study helps” in four sets of readers; evi¬ 
dence as to common practice of teachers in teaching literature; and 
experimental teaching. This was to determine the relative value 
of different methods and devices. He concludes that informal 
methods and no insistence on details at the expense of the whole are 
to be preferred. 

Burgess (8) has published a monograph on the measurement of 
silent reading in which she has made a useful exposition of the laws 
of a scientific procedure in the construction of reading tests; con¬ 
tributed an analysis of reading as a function; and set up a sample 
of experimental and statistical study. 

Several analyses of texts to determine vocabulary or content have 
been made. Holmes (27) has analyzed a primer and two readers 
for phonic facts; Erick and Selke (14), the vocabularies of beginning 
books in 12 reading methods; and Packer (42), a number of first 
readers. All find most books contain words of very limited fre¬ 
quency, and a limited number of words are common to the different 
books. 

Woody (62) and R. E. Stone (52) have studied the content of sec¬ 
ond readers; Starch (49) and Hosiac (30), that of readers for all 
grades in order to determine the amount of duplication or over¬ 
lapping between different sets of readers, so that readers supple¬ 
mentary to each other may be selected more surely and in order to 
determine the type of material included. 

In mechanics of reading books, Blackhurst has made two studies; 
one (4) on the size of type as related to readability in the first four 
grades, from which he concluded that 24-point type was best in 
grades one and two, and 18-point in grades three and four; the other 
(5) is a study of books used in grades one to six in different decades. 
In the later study he found size of type, length of line, and leading 
all had increased in every grade since 1890, the decade of greatest 
change being that of 1890 to 1900. 

Bamberger (3) presents the results of a study on the effect of the 
physical make-up of a book upon children’s selection. The factors 
of choice found are color of cover, nature of title, wide margins, and 
number and type of illustrations. 

Surveys of reading ability have been made on Iowa children by 
Greene (22), and in Idaho by Harlan and Madsen (24). 

2. HANDWRITING. 

Freeman is still the leading investigator in the field of handwrit¬ 
ing. He has published serially in the Elementary School Journal 
(2) a course in handwriting for grades two to six, based on a pre¬ 
liminary course used experimentally in a public school in Kansas 


516 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

City, Kans. He has also made a study (1) on the handwriting 
movement by means of an analysis of the movements of good and 
poor writers through motion-picture study. The amount of arm 
movement was measured by an instrument, giving a tracing of it 
and comparing the degree of correspondence of the tracing with 
the original writing. He found good writers showed a looser grasp 
of the pen, held the arm more nearly perpendicular to the waiting 
and the forefinger lower than the thumb with wrist tilted not more 
than 45 degrees, but he found no evidence that the good writers 
used arm movement more than the poor writers. Of the 243 chil¬ 
dren studied, almost none had complete arm movement, although it 
had been taught them. In regard to speed he found that the good 
writer adapts the speed to the stroke, the speed being greater at the 
middle than at the beginning or end of the stroke, but there is no 
sharp contrast in speed. Using exercises based on these results, 
training classes were taught and showed greater progress than in 
two schools used as controls. 

West (5) has studied the relation of rhythm to the handwriting 
movement and found imposed rhythm an aid only in early years; 
for a writer with habituated speed and rhythm would be slowed and 
the quality of his writing lowered by any beat slow enough to be 
consciously followed. 

Shaw (3) reports an experiment in supervision of handwriting 
carried on in Detroit from which it was concluded that supervision 
does pay and that it is most effective when special attention is given 
to those in need of assistance. 

Walker (4) describes what he calls the “unit plan of penmanship 
practice” developed in St. Louis in which pupils irrespective of class 
standing were divided into three groups of good, mediocre, and 
poor for writing lessons, and were promoted from one group to 
another individually. He found that the plan reduced failures, 
lessened time necessary, and simplified supervision. 

3. MATHEMATICS. 

Thorndike has been the leading contributor to research in this field. 
He has published several separate studies (24) and two books: One 
(21) on the new method in arithmetic which is based upon principles 
discovered by the psychology of learning, experimental education, 
and the observation of sucessful school practice; the other (23) on 
the psychology of arithmetic. In this book he discussed the func¬ 
tion of bonds, control of the response connections, means of obtain¬ 
ing and of measuring improvement in their function, desirable degree 
of strength of bonds at different stages of learning, the original 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


517 


tendencies on which the school may base its connection forming, 
application of laws of learning, and inheritance of special abilities. 

In Algebra, Thorndike (20) has studied the abilities involved in 
algebraic computation, problem solving and intelligence, which he 
finds correlate highly; and the permanence of school learning (22) 
which he finds to be greater than the idea prevalent to-day. Woody 
(32) has corroborated the result in his study. Thorndike, in col¬ 
laboration with Woodyard (25) has also studied the uses of algebra 
and geometry by means of an inventory of high-school textbooks 
and of articles in the Encyclopedia Britannica. They conclude 
that the parts of elementary algebra most used are the statistical 
graph and formulae and that mathematics is of importance to the 
understanding of subjects of general interest. 

Woody (31) has investigated the types of arithmetic needed in 
certain types of salesmanship by means of an analysis of 4,661 bills 
of sale. Symonds (18) states 13 uses of mathematics found in society. 
He estimates the number of persons making such usage and sug¬ 
gests dividing the course of study into three parts in order to provide 
for different uses. G. M. Wilson (28) reviews previous studies and 
presents a study of problems actually solved by mature people as 
one method of determining the curricula in arithmetic. Rosen- 
berger (12) urges the inclusion of the elementary calculus in the 
high-school course, basing his plea on a study of the status and pres¬ 
ent trend of matlimetics in secondary schools in the United States 
and abroad, a historical survey of the growth of the calculus, and 
a comparison of textbooks. The Bureau of Education (9) publishes 
a bulletin on the course in mathematics in secondary education. 

J. H. Smith (15), by measuring the time required for recall, has 
determined the relative difficulty of arithmetical combinations for 
each of the four fundamental operations. Osburn (3), through a 
study of errors in arithmetical fundamentals made by Wisconsin 
children, concludes that the comparison of numbers above the 5’s 
is more difficult than that of those below, and addition of numbers 
whose sum exceeds 10 is more difficult than that of those whose sum 
is less than 10. Zero combinations, division of numbers by them¬ 
selves, carrying, and particularly borrowing are difficult. 

Spaulding (17) has analyzed six third-grade arithmetics in order 
to determine the exact nature of the work offered and how far the 
textbooks studied make an appeal to the needs and interests of 
the pupils. He gives tables showing the number and per cent of 
problems and examples in each text, and the distributions according 
to operation required, subject matter, occupations, and measurements 
involved. 


518 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1022. 


Knight (6) analyzed 45 columns in addition drill exercises. He 
concludes that in construction of drill exercises the frequency with 
which different numbers appear in the columns is a poor index of 
the distribution of practice, and that the frequency of the unseen 
numbers should be considered as well as that of the seen numbers. 

Marsh (8) has compared the school standing in second and third- 
year high school of pupils taking mathematics in first year with those 
who did not, the groups studied being almost exactly equal in first 
year. He found that those studying mathematics in their freshman 
year were decidedly superior in the work of the next two years in 
high school. 

Buckingham (2) presents correlations between mathematical 
ability and intelligence that do not seem to show as close relation 
as previous studies. 

Kolstad (7) found a definite relation between the school grade fin¬ 
ished and one’s ability in later adult- life to solve arithmetic prob¬ 
lems. He found the average American literate adult to have an 
ability equal to about that of seventh-grade school children. 

Schorling (14) gives a description of experimental courses in 
mathematics tried out in 15 schools, which he considers not so much 
scientific experiments as “purposeful innovation.” 

Two studies on the relation of visual imagery to geometric ability 
are reported. Wood and Bell (29) found some correlation, but a 
lower one than that of immediate recall, verbal expression, and ab¬ 
sence of motor manifestation with ability in geometry. Washburn, 
Hatt, and Holt (26) found good correlations between geometric 
ability and speed in control of visual imagery test and a slight cor¬ 
relation with accuracy in control of visual imagery. 

Hoover (4) describes an extensive experiment in utilizing the play 
instinct in arithmetic drill by means of sets of cards involving the 
fundamental operations which were used as a game for children. 
The section using this method gained 17.8 per cent in accuracy as 
against 14.1 per cent for those not using it. 

Kelly (5) has compared three types of drill in grades four to 
eight in Lawrence, Kans. The drill was carried on for 20 days and 
the results showed greater gains and better adaptation of drill to the 
individual child by both the Curtis and Studebaker material than 
by ordinary schoolroom procedure. 

Estaline Wilson (27) and Newcomb (10) have described successful 
experiments in teaching methods of problem solving in arithmetic. 

Beatty (1), in a study of 175 San Francisco pupils in grades four 
to six, concludes that the Austrian method does not show real supe¬ 
riority over the borrowing method of substraction, for, although 
all the pupils had been taught by the former method, 121 used 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


519 


another. The medium accuracy of those using the Austrian method 
was but 2.4 per cent higher than that of those using the borrow¬ 
ing, and their median rate was 8.2 as against the median rate of 
9.2 of those who worked by the borrowing method. 

Reese (11) has reported on the working out of the individual 
system at Winnetka in the case of arithmetic. 

Terry (19) has investigated the reading problem in arithmetic 
through an examination of the methods used by adults by means 
of introspective reports, time and quantity records, and photographic 
records of eye movements. He found a special technique in reading 
numerals of one to seven digits which consists in locating the be¬ 
ginning and end of the numerals, developing habits of many brief 
eye pauses, and definitely grouping digits in pairs or by threes. Ill 
problems there is a partial reading of the numerals, a rereading 
either for further information or inspection before copying, and a 
second rereading during computation for such details as are re¬ 
quired. 

Schmidt (13) has studied 34 cases of extreme retardation in 
arithmetic, all of whom were normal in general ability. None 
were deficient in number sense. In 15 cases the trouble appeared 
to be due to ill health and in 14 to lack of interest. Ill health during 
third grade appeared to be particularly disturbing. 

Wood (30) concludes from a study of a failure class of 34 in 
algebra that there is a relation between failure in algebra and a 
low grade of intelligence and that such classes are a waste of public- 
school funds. 

H. J. Smith (16) has made a survey of the mathematics courses 
and requirements in industrial and vocational secondary schools. 

4. SPELLING AND VOCABULARY. 

In spelling and vocabularies we again find that research has 
reached the point when texts based on the results of research have 
begun to appear. Such texts are Horn and Ashbaugh’s study (T), 
based on 11 investigations of correspondence (1) and graded as to 
difficulty (2) by actual study; the Test and Study Spellers by 
Starch and Mirick (20), whose vocabularies are selected on the 
basis of well-known spelling investigations; Jonfes (8), junior 
high-school writing vocabularies, based on 75,000 themes of 2,050 
pupils; Thorndike’s (21) work-book, which is an alphabetical list 
of the 10,000 most widely used words determined by a count of 
4,656,000 words from 41 different sources, among which are corre¬ 
spondence, children’s books, school texts, and other books covering 
a wide range of interest to be used as a check on what words a 
child should know, not as a speller; Kimble’s (10) vocational vocab- 


520 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1&20-1922. 


ularies for stenographers and court reporters; and Pryor and 
Pittman's (18) guide to the teaching of spelling, in which the 
methods and devices recommended are based on the principles formu¬ 
lated by scientific researches. 

Further studies as to content have been made by Clarke (5), who, 
from a comparison of newspaper vocabularies, Ayres list, and the 
Everyday Speller, concludes that the present lists are inadequate 
because insufficient regard has been shown to geographical and social 
factors; by Capps (4) and Lester (11), who have worked on a high- 
school spelling course by collecting misspelling; and Briggs and 
Kelley (3), who have supplemented the Ayres list by securing the 
second and third thousand words most frequently used in corre¬ 
spondence. 

Woody (24) has evaluated the subject matter in several spellers 
by comparisons with the scientifically derived lists. 

Lester (13), in comparing lists of words commonly misspelled, 
calls attention to the discrepancies which may be due to differences 
in opinion as to what constitutes a misspelling. He has also made 
a study (12) of misspellings in college entrance examinations to 
determine how much simplified spelling really would simplify, and 
finds that only two rules would obviate a high percentage of mis¬ 
spellings. He suggests that these two rules and these alone be 
proposed for adoption. The board of education in Newark, N. J., 
(16) has published a very complete study of a spelling survey, giving 
their results by grades, schools, nationalities, and intelligence ratings 
with the AJrres and Newark standards. 

Hawley and Gallup (6) report a study on the list versus the sentence 
method of teaching spelling and found no advantage in the latter. 
Morton (15) in five Ohio cities studied the sentence versus column 
tests and found the slight increase in correlation does not justify the 
extra expenditure of time and energy required for timed-sentence 
tests. Peters and McClure (17), from a study in written versus oral 
spelling in both study and recitation, conclude that the written 
method is preferable for the majority of pupils—about two-thirds 
doing better by the written, and one-third doing better by the oral 
method. They urge that future experimenters with method display 
their results in such a form as to indicate whether the method proves 
superior on the average, is somewhat better for all, or only better for 
some of the group while it is worse for the minority. If the best 
method proves to differ for different pupils it may be necessary “ to 
segregate our pupils according to the forms which they learn best in 
addition to, or perhaps instead of, our present segregation on the 
basis of general intelligence.” Wolfe and Breed (23) report a study 
of syllabification in teaching spelling, in which they found it pro- 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


521 


duced slightly better results, especially with younger children. 
Weseem (22) reports the improvement of the spelling ability of 
university underclassmen by having them list their own misspellings 
as marked by their instructor of study. 

Martin (14) describes an individualized method of teaching spell¬ 
ing, which was tried in grades four and five, in which a review and 
trial lesson of the week’s work was given each Monday to determine 
which words each child needed to study and a weekly test on Fridays 
to check results. Richardson (19) gives an account of a “spelling 
campaign,” in which the experimental groups eliminated 53 per cent 
of misspellings as against 10 per cent eliminated by the control 
groups. 

Two experiments in word study are reported: One by Henmon (6a) 
to determine the outcome of a word-study course which appears to 
be of value; the other by Kellogg (9), an experiment to increase vo¬ 
cabulary by giving upper class high-school students two or three 
new words each day, which was also successful. 

5. ENGLISH. 

In English, the most elaborate study is that by Hudelson (5), re¬ 
ported in Part I of the Twenty-Second Yearbook of the National 
Society for the Study of Education. It deals with the aims and 
methods of teaching composition. Some of his conclusions as to 
aims and methods are: “ That equal or nearly equal time is being 
spent in composition and literature; that rhetorical principles re¬ 
ceive most emphasis; most use is made of and best results obtained 
from biweekly themes; errors and weaknesses are seldom corrected 
by the teacher except in matters of taste, and in questions demanding 
nice judgment or involving unfamiliar principles; and that English 
teachers recognize practically no fundamental functioning relation 
between oral and written composition.” The aims set forth in the 
United States Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 2, 1917, are gener¬ 
ally accepted and followed. Points considered by teachers as the 
most serious defects are lack of clearness, incomplete sentences, struc¬ 
tural weaknesses, punctuation and capitalization errors. Misspellings 
are frequently undetected, and no distinction is made between spell¬ 
ing differences. Hudelson also presents new scales for measuring 
abilities in composition. 

Wohlforth (12) and Malroney (13) have published a series of 
English texts containing drill lessons based upon scientific findings 
as to language errors and spelling weaknesses. Brown (2) has pub¬ 
lished an interesting compilation of 28 lessons on the technique of 
compositions chosen from the writings of successful authors. Mc¬ 
Gregor (9) has published a text on supervised study in English which 


522 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 


contains many sample lessons reported from the practices of the 
English department of the Washington Junior High School at 
Rochester, N. Y. Many assignments are worked out on the basis of 
minimum, average, and maximum difficulty. Project teaching and 
socialized recitation were used. 

Heckert (3) reports an experiment in supervised study in English 
in the ninth grade which resulted in greater improvement on the 
part of the supervised group over that made by the nonsupervised 
group. Jordan (8) reports an experiment in 10 New Hampshire and 
Vermont high schools in which it was found that the comprehension 
by students of ordinary reading matter was low, but developed 
throughout high school, and that errors in composition decreased 
from year to year until the senior year when the number increased 
again, perhaps due to the greater stress laid upon literature in that 
year. 

Correlations of language abilities have been calculated by Jamison 
(6), Van Wagenen and Kelly (10). Jamison found an apparent 
positive correlation between the abilities required for language and 
written composition. Van Wagenen and Kelly found low correla¬ 
tions between various language abilities and college marks and a cor¬ 
relation of +0.52 between the abilities in reading and composition. 

Studies as to content of English courses have been reported by Hill 
(4), Johnson (T), and Wilson (11). Hill’s report is a description 
of a course in community life English tried out in the University of 
Chicago laboratory school. Johnson’s aim was to establish clear ob¬ 
jectives in letter writing. He analyzed 150 “ good ” letters from the 
correspondence files of well-known women, several modern collec¬ 
tions of literary letters, and 1,000 letters from women of approxi¬ 
mately college freshmen standing. The “ good ” letters were charac¬ 
terized by courtesy, informality, humor, optimism, judgment, few 
centers of organization, and correct form. The student business let¬ 
ters showed errors more frequently than the social letters. The latter 
were characterized by optimism, crudeness, “ newsiness,” lack of or¬ 
ganization, too much focusing on self, and inferior humor. Wilson 
makes a comparison of five studies of language errors of children. 
He concluded that the list common to different localities is very small, 
and did not find much difference by grades nor in oral and written 
lists. Verb errors made up 50 per cent of all and the errors were 
specific and could not be corrected by rules. 

Bamesberger (1) has studied the standard requirements for memo¬ 
rizing literary material by means, of a comparison of 50 city 
school courses of study. Her results are given in lists of poems ac¬ 
cording to frequency and by grades, a preferred list for study in 
which Atherton’s list was also considered, lists of memory gems, 
Biblical material, and prose selections. 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


523 


6. SPEECH. 

Merry ( 2 ), in his report of the research committee of the National 
Association of Teachers of Speech, gives an excellent survey of the 
nature of research in speech education. 

Some of the published studies in this field include: A survey of 
speech training in high schools of the United States, with recom¬ 
mendations for its improvement by Williams (5); a study by W 90 I- 
bert ( 6 ) on the effects of the various modes of public reading; and 
three studies on corrective speech by Anderson, Starr, and Stinch- 
field. 

Woolbert’s study led to the conclusion that extreme change in all 
four attributes—pitch, time, quality, and intensity—appeared to the 
better rate, regulation of pitch changes appearing to be especially 
significant. 

Stinchfield (4) reports a very high incidence of speech defects. 
In a study of 113 elementary school pupils, 93 had functional dis¬ 
turbances of speech, and 45—some of these the same—had organic 
speech defects. She gives a detailed classification and analysis of 
defective speech conditions, and causes of speech disorders. She 
also reports two type cases in which the speech was improved, and 
describes the materials used in the corrective methods. 

Anderson (1) reports an experimental analysis of the causes of 
stuttering carried on by a series of tests used with “ normals,” ex- 
stutterers and stutterers. The results showed characteristic dif¬ 
ferences in hand coordination and memory span for movements. 
Stutterers had fewer partially inhibited responses. Ex-stutterers 
were unusually irregular in complex reaction time. Rapidity and 
regularity of tapping and disturbance in type of hand coordination 
seemed to be associated with improvement in stuttering. 

Starr (3), by means of about 1,300 salivary analyses and psycho¬ 
logical diagnosis judgments, found that 73.7 per cent of stammerers 
were subbreathers with a salivary P.H considerably below normal; 
15.4 per cent were distinctly psycopathic with a salivary P.H 
above normal; and the others were hyperexcitable or combinations 
of the other types. Speech could be improved by treatment directed 
to improving these causes. 

7. FOREIGN LANGUAGES. 

In the field of foreign languages almost all the research has been 
in Latin, most of the research in this field being motivated by a 
desire to prove its worth. 

Two brief studies have been made in the general field of foreign 
languages. Franzen (5), in 1921, made a survey of the enrollment 


524 BIENNIAL SURVEY OR EDUCATION, 1920—1922. 

and courses offered in foreign languages in Iowa’s secondary schools. 
He found Latin enrolling five times the number studying other lan¬ 
guages, with French second, Spanish third, and Norse enrolling a 
few. Cook(4) has ranked as to relative importance the Romance 
languages, English, and Russian, according to the criteria of the 
number of people using each language, territorial possessions of 
countries using it, official recognition by government, and its dynamic 
quality and importance as a vehicle of thought. 

Morrison (9) and Webb (14) have made studies of methods that 
bear on learning a foreign language. Morrison’s study was a com¬ 
parison of scores on prepared lessons in Latin or French transla¬ 
tion and sight reading. Eleven, out of 67 students studied, made as 
good or better scores at sight as in prepared work. From his 
study he concludes that transfer from lesson learning to capacity is 
very uncertain and occurs in a small percentage. Webb reports a 
comparison of two methods of study—recall or study, in learning 
paired associates. He found 65 to 76 per cent of his subjects re¬ 
tained more and 16 to 24 per cent less by the recall method. Writing 
down the paired associates helped 57 per cent and hindered 38 per 
cent. 

In Latin many of the studies have centered around the investiga¬ 
tions being carried on by the American Classical League (3) (7), 
with the support of the General Education Board, in order to deter¬ 
mine “to what extent the objectives commonly claimed for Latin 
are attained ” and what content and methods are most favorable. 

Newcomb (10) reports one phase of this investigation, namely, a 
comparison of the Latin and non-Latin groups in high school. In 
a study of 3,000 pupils in 85 schools, 65 per cent of the Latin group 
exceeded the non-Latin in intelligence, 57 per cent in reading ability, 
68 per cent in knowledge of grammar, and 71 per cent in word 
knowledge. He found conditions varied widely in different schools 
and that the Latin pupils were a very heterogeneous group, but were 
the superior, on the whole, though not so much as has been supposed. 

Brown (1), in a study of 29 Wisconsin schools, shows that very 
little progress in knowledge of Latin is made in the upper years and 
very little knowledge is gained in any year. Schools placing the 
chief emphasis upon formal grammar in the first year and later 
shifting to rapid translation gave the best results. Odell (11) 
studied 1,000 errors in Latin prose composition. He found that one- 
third of all errors are caused by lack of mechanical memory, one- 
fourth by lack of reasoning power, and nearly one-half to carelessness. 
Errors in declension comprised one-third, in conjugation one-fourth, 
in order 12 per cent, and in analysis 9.5 per cent. 

Seveial studies of Latin in relation to English vocabulary are re¬ 
ported, one of which also attempts to show the value of Latin in 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


525 


English composition and grammar. For this last study, Otis (13) 
paired 42 Latin pupils with 42 commercial pupils on the basis of 
intelligence and school grades. The Latin pupils showed slight 
superiority in composition and marked superiority in defining words. 
Ihis increased power in English vocabulary on the part of students 
of Latin is found by all investigators reporting. Orleans (12), by 
the method of judgments, determined the possibility of transfer 
value of 2,000 words in the Thorndike word list. 

Gilland (6) found a steady increase in the ability to define words 
with the number of years of study of Latin on the part of 115 col¬ 
lege freshmen. 

Carr (2), from the study of the reports of 7 high-school freshmen 
classes, concludes that during the school year the Latin pupils 
gain more than the non-Latin pupils in vocabulary; he thinks such 
transfer of training to the field of English vocabulary depends 
largely upon definite instruction and training in the technique of 
derivation. 

West (15) reports a controlled experiment in the teaching of 
English derivatives from Latin, which was started in February, 
1922, to be carried on for at least three semesters. Four groups 
are to be studied, two each of Latin and non-Latin classes. In one 
of each section definite training in etymology will be given. 

Grinstead (8) found that a year’s course in Latin is of value when 
emphasis is especially laid on etymology. 

8. VOCATIONAL SUBJECTS. 

Most of the studies in industrial arts, manual training, and home 
economics are in form of surveys (3, 9, 15, 20). The Bureau of 
Education (5) publishes a bulletin in reorganization of home eco¬ 
nomics in secondary schools. The most complete of the surveys in 
home economics is by Rugg (22), in collaboration with the depart¬ 
ments of home economics at the University of Chicago and Iowa 
Agricultural College. It includes a study of existing courses, an 
analysis of texts, a study of literature on the subject to determine 
definite aims and objectives, and preliminary tests in the subject. 

At the Teachers College, Columbia University, there is a class in 
investigation in cookery. Accounts of two of their experiments in 
pressure cookery (19) and the making of ice cream (18) have been 
published. 

Newman (21) describes an experiment in a course in metal working 
presented by problematic question-lesson sheets. 

Foulkes and Diamond (9) have made a study on the adaptation of 
courses in manual training to community needs and interests. They 
studied the uses the boys made of their training outside of school 
91348°—24-34 


520 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OB EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 


and found the fifth and sixth grade boys made mostly articles for 
home and kitchen and toys, and furniture became increasingly popu¬ 
lar from fifth to eighth grade. 

Fuller (10) suggests a course in manual arts based on home re¬ 
pair and gives a classified list (according to frequency) of jobs found 
and lists of the tool processes, necessary to perform the jobs. 

Two studies, one by Charters and Green (4), and one by Dyer 
(6), have been made on home-project work in agriculture. Dyer’s is 
a study of prevailing practices in the North Central and Northeast¬ 
ern States. The other is a detailed study of the factors in efficiency 
of the boys’ and girls’ clubs. Some of these factors are a formal 
organization, frequent meetings, making reports and exhibits, mem¬ 
berships of 7 to 15, and, perhaps, a comparatively narrow age range 
of members. 

Two bulletins on training for retail selling have been published. 
One (7) is based on a study of the vocational history of 5,000 juvenile 
workers in Boston’s retail stores, made by the director of the Woman’s 
Educational and Industrial Union, while the other is a description of 
the retail selling course in Pittsburgh high school (17), carried on as 
an experiment by the Carnegie Institute of Technology’s Research 
Bureau, for retail training with the cooperation of the public schools 
and merchants. 

Three studies on the present status of engineering courses are 
reported, one by Ayers (1), and two in Government bulletins (11, 
14). 

Hoke (13)- presents a study in the improvement of speed and 
accuracy in typewriting by means of determining the relative fre¬ 
quency of the different characters on the keyboard and of errors. 
Correlations were found between infrequency of use and frequency 
of error. The relative abilities of each finger were studied. The 
author concludes that greater speed and accuracy would result from 
a rearrangement of the keyboard on principles underlying the touch 
method and a redistribution of finger loads. 

Barton (2) has studied the relative value of using small or large 
units in learning to typewrite. His results are somewhat in favor of 
the larger unit. 

Two books in a more general field of vocational education are: 
Hill’s Introduction to Vocational Education (12), which treats of 
such subjects as education for the mechanical trades and industries 
applications of psychology to instruction and adjustments of the 
individual and society; and Lyon’s‘Education for Business (16), 
which presents a study of business operations and processes and ap¬ 
plications of science to such. 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


527 


9. SCIENCE. 

General science seems to have the place of first interest in science, 
doubtless due to its comparatively recent entrance into the course of 
study. Most of the science studies, moreover, have taken the form 
of surveys as to the status of the subjects (3, 4, 8, 9, 15). 

As to content of the courses, Webb (16) has made a study to de¬ 
termine the adaptation of general science in grades six to eight, and 
has also analyzed quantitatively the texts commonly used in general 
science. Stevenson (14) presents a list of minimum essentials in 
place geography based on the ranking of various items (e. g., rivers, 
capes, mountains, and lakes) by 55 experts. Branom (2) has made 
a study of what the business world demands of geography by means 
of a questionnaire. Some of his conclusions are that the subject is of 
importance, but too many high-school graduates and even college 
students have but a poor knowledge of the subject. More emphasis 
should be placed on the study of South America, Asia, and Oceania. 
A course in commercial and industrial geography in the eighth 
grade is desirable and less attention should be paid to minor prob¬ 
lems. 

Barthelmess (1) draws conclusions as to facts that pupils should 
know in geography from extensive testing carried on in Boston. 

Finley (6) approaches the matter of content in general science 
through a two-part study of children’s interests in science material, 
studying 1,716 children in grades 1 to 8. The first was an attempt 
to discover the true nature of the interest of children in animals. 
The method used was to present a salamander to the class who, after 
three minutes of silent observation, wrote down or whispered to the 
teacher the questions they would like to have answered about the 
animal. The questions asked were classified as to type of interest 
shown, and the differences from grade to grade were noted. Identifi¬ 
cation, environment, and food caused considerable interest; the life 
history, habits, and structure were other interests, the last two 
strongest in grade 4; and in grade 2 the teleological interest was 
strong. In the second part of the study, the investigator tried to 
find out which interested children more, plants, animals, or physical 
phenomena, by presenting the black skimmer, life-plant, and pendu¬ 
lum to the classes in an 8 or 10 minute talk followed up the next day 
by having the pupils write on their choice of the three. In 22 
classes the bird was the most popular, in two the plant, and the 
pendulum in one. 

Powers (13) reports a comparison of the achievement of high 
school and university students in chemistry, in which it was found 
that the difference between students who have taken chemistry in 
university freshman classes and those who have taken it in the 


528 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

better high schools is small and both do better than those from small 
high schools. He gives in detail the types of tasks in which each 
group excelled. 

Finley and Caldwell (7) have made an attempt to determine the 
types of information in biology which the public is now receiving. 
They studied articles bearing on the subject and classified the 
references. The articles found belong to eight main topics: Health, 
animals, plants, food, organizations of producers, evolution, nature, 
and fictitious. Only one-fourteenth of the articles are on the last 
four topics. The authors conclude that “ since these types of bio¬ 
logical knowledge are given to the public in such large quantities and 
over the whole country, the course in school biology should consider 
them as part of the foundation upon which to proceed in construct¬ 
ing a course of study.” 

On methods in teaching science, w T e have four studies. Bry¬ 
son (5) found diagrammatic drawing increased the retention and 
recall of information in college and high-school classes. Phillips 
(12) concluded that laboratory experiments were no advantage over 
demonstration in teaching a law of physics but were of value in 
“ familiarizing pupils with apparatus and method of procedure ”; 
and that notebook recording was of value in making information 
more definite. Kiebler and Woody (10) also found the demonstra¬ 
tion method secured as good results as the laboratory method, ex¬ 
cept in especially difficult experiments, and had the advantage of 
saving time. Meister (11) reports an attempt to measure the edu¬ 
cational value of play with scientific toys which he found to be of 
decided value. 

10. MUSIC AND DRAWING. 

Very little has been done in the field of fine arts. In music, 
the outstanding contribution is Seashore’s (8) survey of the musical 
talent of children in Des Moines public schools, using tests for 
sense of pitch, time, intensity, consonance, and tonal memory with 
comparisons with teachers’ ratings in brightness, singing, rythm, 
and amount of musical training the children had received. He has 
established norms for the fifth and eighth grades, standardized 
methods, apparatus, and technique, and presented principles for 
the discovery and conserving of musical talent. His study is the be¬ 
ginning of the development of a science of vocational and avoca- 
tional guidance in the field of music. 

Two brief studies of disabilities in music are reported, one by 
Kern (6) on the corrective treatment of a group of monotones, the 
other by Gaw (3), a study of 24 normal-school pupils who were 
unsuccessful in the study of music. 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


529 


Feleky (1) has published a text on The Musician’s Mind, in 
which she summarizes the replies to a questionnaire of 100 musicians 
and composers as to type of imagery, methods of learning and teach¬ 
ing, and effects of various factors on performance. 

Frampton (2) conducted a questionnaire to determine what courses 
in music are offered by college extension departments and the U. S. 
Bureau of Education has published a bulletin on the music depart¬ 
ments of libraries (10), and another on the present status of music 
instruction in colleges and high schools. 

Hutson (4) and Scott (7) report surveys in a Minneapolis and 
a Massachusetts high school on the musical training and desires 
of high-school seniors, from which they conclude that there is a 
comparatively universal desire for music expressed in different 
ways and tastes, but that the students are handicapped in acquiring 
a musical education by its expense, lack of time, and argue for the 
educative value of music. Scott proposes a program for music in 
high schools. 

Taylor (9) has published a text on the Psychology of Singing, 
dealing with modern methods of instruction, vocal science, and prac¬ 
tical voice culture. 

In drawing even less has been done. Whitford (11) gives a 
synopsis for planning courses in the different grades, based on data 
sheets submitted to 50 experienced teachers and supervisors of art 
who were asked to check the value of five art elements and of dif¬ 
ferent types of art commonly taught in the public schools. 

Jones (5) has made an attempt to discover the nature powers pe¬ 
culiar to children who have art ability through tests given to seventh 
and eighth grade children, and a questionnaire sent to over 200 artists. 
The conclusion appears to be that art ability and aesthetic apprecia¬ 
tion are closely linked, and that the tests of visual memory and per¬ 
ception of perspective showed high correlations with drawing ability. 

11. KINDERGARTEN. 

Loeb (1) describes a little experiment in a public-school kinder¬ 
garten to determine what materials and games children will choose 
voluntarily and what products result from their own planning. 
The Bureau of Education issues a bulletin (2) on a kindergar¬ 
ten-first-grade curriculum that is a composite product of 26 leaders 
in that field. 

12. SOCIAL STUDIES. 

Social studies in the curriculum are undergoing a decided change 
in form and content. Thus we find a number of surveys (9, 10, 14, 
17,18,21,22) as to their present status, some including all and others 


530 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

only one of them, and covering all years from intermediate through 
college. 

Experimental courses in high school are reported by Minor (13) on 
Current Events and Problems; by Shideler (19) on Modern Social 
Problems. Three experiments in the application of civic education 
or civic training are described: One by Coe (6), tried at Grafton, 
the results of which were checked by association tests and a control 
group; by Cheney (5), who describes the Lawrence plan for educa¬ 
tion in citizenship; and an experiment tried in the San Francisco 
Normal School (3), in which the special feature was a discussion 
by the children of social situations presented to them. 

Tyron (23) has analyzed five texts in world history as a basis for 
a one-year course in world history. Dodd (11) has listed the his¬ 
torical references in the poems required for entrance to the Univer¬ 
sity of Illinois as an aid to coordination between history and English 
curricula. 

Studies in method in teaching history are reported by P*ugg (16) 
on supervised study; by Beatty (4) on the use of pageantry and 
ritual; by Wilgus (25) on the laboratory method; and by Hatch 
(12) on the project method. 

Yoelker (24) has studied the function of ideals and attitudes in 
social education. Using the ideal of trustworthiness as the ob¬ 
jective and devising tests of trustworthiness for measures, 
he studied the effect of training by methods similar to those used in 
the training of Boy Scouts. He had two experimental and two con¬ 
trol groups. The experimental groups gained 13.5 per cent and 9.9 
per cent; the control groups failed to improve. 

But the best collection of studies in this field is to be found in the 
Twenty-second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of 
Education (15). Chapter I in this book covers the situation and the 
need. Harold Pugg, in his chapter on “ Do the Social Studies 
Prepare Pupils Adequately for Life Activities ? ” answers no and in¬ 
dicts the present scheme on the inadequate materials and insuffi¬ 
cient provision for pupil activities. Judd argues for the junior 
high school as the favorable point for the introduction of the social 
studies. Marshall presents the proposal for the social-study curric¬ 
ulum of the commission of the Association of Collegiate Schools of 
Business (7, 8), which is set forth on the basis of the consideration 
that the organization of social studies should be in terms of the pur¬ 
pose for their introduction with consideration for vocational needs 
and in terms of the psychology of learning. Earle Pugg in chap¬ 
ter 4 discusses how the social studies curricula came to be what they 
are. Chapter 2 describes eight types of reorganized courses in 
social science being tried out in different schools, elementary, high 
and college. Chapter 3 tells how the new curricula are being con- 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


531 


structed. Washburne, in chapter 12, describes the Winnetka social- 
science investigation. By the examination of about 15 issues of each 
of 18 periodicals of various types 81,434 allusions to historical or 
geographical facts were found, which were then classified and ranked 
according to periodical year frequency. Horn reviews different 
methods of research that have been used in scientific determination 
of the curriculum of history. Harold Rugg reports an investigation 
by means of the analysis of representative books in the social science 
field from which a course is drawn up based on the statements of 
contemporary problems and issues found in these books. Harap illus¬ 
trates a method of curriculum revision which requires the coop¬ 
eration of expert psychologists, administrators of education, and 
sociologists by means of first ascertaining present economic habits, 
comparing these with scientific standards of good living and social 
axioms of universal acceptance. Chapter 4 by Frank McMurray is 
a critical appraisal of the proposed reorganizations. The appendix 
contains a bibliography and a statistical representation of facts as 
current courses. 

Alderman (1) has contributed to the content of civics courses a 
study of the various causes of litigation on the docket and the peti¬ 
tions filed in the district court of Johnson County, Iowa, in order 
to ascertain what an Iowa layman should know about courts and 
laws. 

Almack (2) has listed measures submitted to voters through 
initiative and referendum in order to determine what civic problems 
should be studied. 

Snedden (20) discusses the problem of methods for finding the 
objectives of civic education. He favors the method of “type-group” 
analysis. As examples, Professor Snedden gives 11 representative 
type-group studies made by his seminar. These not only illustrate 
the method but are themselves suggestive through their content. 

13. MORAL EDUCATION. 

The Character Education Institute award of a $20,000 prize for 
the best plan for moral education was won by the Iowa Plan (1), 
which points out ways of securing moral results from the regular 
studies and school organizations by the use of problems and projects. 
The book includes rating scales and bibliographies. 

Shepherd (33), who has made a study to determine the importance 
of different factors on the religious ideas and beliefs of children, 
concludes: (<z) Education has been a very important factor; (b) 
social environment has been an influence; (c) children’s confidence 
in others has been a very important factor; ( d ) authority has been 
concerned; ( e ) thought has been concerned; (/) the confidence 


532 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

shown has been like that of primitive man in gaining his religious 
ideas; (g) the writer believes that these conclusions apply in greater 
or less extent to the religious ideas and beliefs of children of other 
ages than 8 to 13 years. 

Everyday Manners, a book published by the faculty of the South 
Philadelphia high schools (2) for girls, is a result of a special study 
by a committee of students and teachers and discusses manners in 
the home, school, in public places, in business, and gives suggestions 
as to methods. 

XVII. HEALTH. 

The importance from the standpoint of education of the correction 
of physical defects and improvement of health is shown in studies 
by Mallory (14), who studied the relation of physical defects to 
school progress. He found a direct relation between low scores and 
physical defects. Ranked as to degree of handicap the defects are: 
(a) Nasal obstruction, (b) defective teeth, (c) defective hearing, 
( d ) defective tonsils, and ( e ) defective eyes. Sandwich (22) com¬ 
pared the number of physical defects of children making high 
scores in intelligence tests with those making low scores. Rogers (20) 
studied the effect of adenoids and diseased tonsils. Six months after 
operation little improvement was shown, but after 12 months the 
test group had gained double what the control group did in weight, 
slightly more in height and also in speed of tapping, but no dif¬ 
ference in grip, I. Q., or Healy test. Mason (15) describes a method 
tried at Lincoln School for reducing absences by keeping record of 
the number and causes of absence and requiring pupils to report to 
the school physician after absence from any cause. The result is 
that absences have fallen from 14.9 to 9.3 per cent. Todd (23), 
whose study was of high-school boys, suggests a curriculum and 
program providing time for corrective work in physical education. 

Standards of growth have been studied by Baldwin (1), who has 
made an exhaustive study of the Physical Growth of Children; and 
by Packer and Moehlman (18), who have found standards for De¬ 
troit children by sex, age, and nationality. Both of these writers have 
studied the relation of growth to school progress and found it 
positive. 

Several studies in reducing malnutrition are reported. In Kansas 
City (3) all children were weighed and measured three times a year 
and the findings used as a basis for teaching of hygiene, accessory 
feeding of underweight children, and other follow-up work. Results: 
30 per cent underweight reduced to 19 per cent. 

Ennis (5) found 15 per cent boys and 20 per cent girls in Evans¬ 
ton, Ill., to be 10 per cent or more underweight. The study is re¬ 
ported by schools. 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


533 


Mudge (17) reports a 12 weeks’ experiment with two groups of 
children which included educational, nutritional, and health work. 

The United States Bureau of Education (6) has a bulletin on 
malnutrition and school feeding. 

Mitchell and Forbes (16) report an experiment in nutrition classes 
in a New York City boys’ school. But the most complete experi¬ 
ment in this line is reported in Health Education and the Nutrition 
Class (11) where various groups of children who were underweight 
were studied during three years. The remedial measures attempted 
are described. Attention is called to the effect of seasonal variation 
in gain in weight in comparing results. The authors also conclude 
that “ the definition of malnutrition as a function of the height- 
weight relationship with the acceptance of a 7 per cent standard is 
not justified.” 

On hygiene of the eyes we have a United States Bureau of Edu¬ 
cation bulletin by Berkowitz (2), who presents a summary of facts 
concerning eye defects, lighting systems, arrangement of desks, 
blackboards, and other problems of the hygiene of vision; and a 
study by Wager (25) on a method for measuring the fatigue of the 
eyes by the speed of shifts in fixation varying distances. He found 
ocular powers ranging from a high resistance to fatiguing condi¬ 
tions to a ready susceptibility. 

W. L. Holt (10) studies the effects of smoking on freshmen. He 
found fewer nonsmokers underweight, more of them on athletic 
teams and on honor list, and their grade average w^as 4.1 points 
higher than the smokers. Vaughn (24), in a tobacco survey of 
high-school boys, also found nonsmokers doing better work. 

In accident prevention we have a United States Bureau of Edu¬ 
cation bulletin by Payne (19). 

In physical education, Williams (26) has published a text on its 
organization and administration; Williams, Atkinson, and Biace 
(27) describe an experiment to determine the relative value of 
formal gymnastics and play in the fourth grade. The play group 
gained more in skill and alertness, obedience, height, weight, lung 
capacity, and heart condition. In strength and chest expansion 
the groups were about equal, and the formal group made slightly 
more improvement in posture. 

In athletics, Gilchrist (7) gives ratings and suggests norms for 
boys and girls in track and field events. Kunkel (13) has studied 
the effect on enrollment of a winning football team and concludes 
that its advertising worth has been much overestimated. 

The Cleveland Foundation (9) has made a recreation survey and 
made comparisons between school progress and spare-time activities. 


534 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

In the matter of Sex Education we have a study by Gruenberg 
(8), which deals with its importance, methods, correlation with dif¬ 
ferent subjects in the curriculum and preparation of teachers for 
this purpose. Hunter (12) tells of an experiment at Carleton Col¬ 
lege on movies in teaching social hygiene. Edson (4) reports a sur¬ 
vey of the status of sex instruction in which a rather widespread 
belief in its need was found; the ratio of schools responding to 
questionnaire that gave sex instruction to those that did not was 11 
to 16. The topics treated and subjects used as media for pre¬ 
senting phases of sex education are given. 

Salisbury (21) has studied the legislative provision for physical 
education in different States and found 11 had good provision for 
it by laws, 9 others had mandatory and 3 more had permissive laws. 

XVIII. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE. 

The present status of vocational guidance has been studied by 
Maverick (9) in Massachusetts, by McDougall(8) in 130 high schools, 
and by Edgerton (6) in 379 junior high schools. 

Cowdrey (2), Proctor (12), and Yance (15) have studied the 
value of mental tests in vocational guidance. Proctor believes 
they are to be used along with teachers’ estimates of ability, records 
of school success, and vocational ambitions of the pupil. His sug¬ 
gestions are mainly of a negative kind. Cowdrey calculated cor¬ 
relations between the different trades taught in the Whittier State 
School with mental and chronological ages and intelligence quotient, 
and computed critical upper and lower mental age levels for success. 
He found in no group success was wholly dependent on intelligence 
and that different trades were of three types where success was 
dependent on mental level, where the relationship was negligible, 
and where the work was better adapted to low levels of intelligence. 

The use of mental tests in guidance of pupils in selection of high- 
school courses is discussed by Dickson (4) 1920, and Weisman (16) 
1923, and Powers (11). Hemming (13) obtained answers from 93 
high-school students as to the reasons why they chose subjects, and 
urges that students be given more instruction as to what different 
subjects treat of in order that they may choose more intelligently. 

The vocational interests of high-school seniors of the State of 
Washington was studied by Douglas (5). He found more girls 
and boys from large schools planning to enter business and more 
girls from small schools teaching, and more boys agriculture. On 
the whole, too many boys planned to take up engineering or law 
and too few agriculture and the ministry. Very few were choosing 
because of fitness and 58 per cent did not expect to remain perma¬ 
nently in the lines of work in which they would immediately engage. 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


535 


Crathorne (3) has studied the change of mind between high school 
and college as to life work. He found that about one-lialf of the 
57 per cent who entered high school with an occupation in view had 
changed their minds by the freshman year at college. He gives the 
results by occupations and sex. Miner (10) describes an experiment 
in helping high-school students to observe their own vocational 
interests by filling out blanks which analyzed and summarized in¬ 
terest bearing upon vocational satisfactions and classifying the oc¬ 
cupations according to the types of activities employed. 

In 1920 the recreational, reading, and vocational interests of 800 
girls 6 to 20 years old were studied by Wheeler (17). He found a 
very limited range of vocations known to the girls. 

A guide to the study of occupations in order to assist in vocational 
guidance has been published by Allen (1) and Freyer (7). It gives 
two tables of intelligence standards for 96 occupations based on the 
Army studies and verified by studies of the Central Branch Y. M. 
C. A. of Brooklyn. Thorndike and Symonds (14) have compared 
the occupations of high-school graduates and nongraduates. 

XIX. SELECTED SURVEYS. 

During the past two years school surveys have become less fre¬ 
quent and morg specialized in type. At least 14 States have con¬ 
ducted surveys of scientific significance on curricula, buildings, 
finance, supervision, high schools, teacher training, and rural schools. 
A number of mental surveys have been started and a few com¬ 
pleted. 

ALABAMA. 

Brenner, Thomas E. A comparative study of the elementary schools, white 
and colored, of the 67 counties of Alabama. Montgomery, Ala., Brown 
Printing Co., 1921. 14 p., charts, tables. 

ARKANSAS. 

U. S. Bureau of Education. The Arkansas survey report (abridged). Little 
Rock, Ark. [1922]. 83 p. (Journal of the Arkansas Educational Asso¬ 

ciation, vol. 6, nos. 3-4, July-October, 1922.) 

CALIFORNIA. 

Hart, Frank W. A school building and school housing program for Napa, 
Calif. Berkeley, Calif., University of California, 1921. 64 p., tables, 

charts, maps. (Dept, of Education. Bureau of Research. Study 2.) 

- and Peterson, L. H. A school building survey and school housing 

program for San Rafael, Calif. Berkeley, Calif.. University of California. 
(Dept, of Education. Bureau of Research. Study 8.) 

McNaught, M. S., and Richards, E. M. Report of the survey of schools of 
Nevada County. Sacramento, Calif., California Board of Education. 
(Bulletin no. 28.) 23 p. 

Williams, J. H. A survey of the pupils in the schools of Bakersfield, Calif. 
Whittier, Calif., Whittier State School, Dept, of Printing Instruction, 
1920. 43 p. 



536 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 


COLORADO. 

(City and County of Denver, Colo.) School District No. 1. Sixteenth annual 
report for the year ending June 30, 1919. Denver, 1920. 278 p., illus. 

Fruita, Colo., Board of Education. An educational survey of Ihe Fruita (Colo.) 
Union High School District, including school districts Nos. 2, 7, 23, 25, 
27, and 37. 1921. Ill p. 

The rural high-school district includes social and economic survey. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Davis, Jesse B. A survey of the organization and administration of high 
schools in the State of Connecticut. Hartford, Conn., State Board of 
Education, 1921. 37 p. 

Southington, Conn. School Board Annual Report, 1922. 69 p. 

Tart 1 deals with a health survey. Part 2, the superintendent's report; includes 
educational tests. Part 3, finance. 

DELAWARE. 

U. S. Bureau of Education. Survey of the schools of Wilmington, Del. Bulle¬ 
tin, 1921, no. 2. 132 p. 

FLORIDA. 

Roemcr. Joseph. A study of Florida high schools. Gainesville, Fla., University 
of Florida, Dept, of Secondary Education, 1921. 29 p., tables. 

GEORGIA. 

Duggan, M. L., and Bolton, E. B. Educational surveys of various counties in 
Georgia. Atlanta, Ga., State Department of Education, 1921-22. Nos. 
27-38. 554 p. 

Twenty-seven, twenty-eight, and twenty-nine by M. L. Duggan only. 

Fernandez, Alice B. A school building program for Athens, Ga. U. S. Bureau 
of Education. Bulletin, 1921, no. 25. 

Strayer, George D. Report of the survey of the public-school system of Atlanta, 
Ga. (School year, 1921-22.) New York, Columbia University, Teachers 
College, Institute of Educational Research. 

Survey made by Division of Field Studies. 

HAWAII. 

U. S. Bureau of Education. A survey of education in Hawaii. Bulletin, 1920, 
no. 16. 408 p., illus., tables. 

Gives data regarding races, population, occupations, administration, finance, task 
of Americanization, and status of education. 

IDAHO. 

Sears, J. B. The Boise survey. Yonkers, N. Y., World Book Co., 1920. 290 p. 

Administration,, organization, staff, curriculum, progress, and health. 

INDIANA. 

Book, William F. The intelligence of higli-school seniors. New York, Mac¬ 
millan Co., 1922. xviii+37 p. 


KANSAS. 

University of Kansas. Extension Division. School survey of Lawrence, Ivans 
Bulletin, vol. 23, no. 1, Jan. 1, 1922. 100 p., illus., tables, charts. 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


537 


KENTUCKY. 

General Education Board (N. Y.). Kentucky Educational Commission. Report 
on public education in Kentucky. New York, 1922. ix+213 p., illus., 

charts, tables. 

LOUISIANA. 

U. S. Bureau of Education. Survey of the schools of Caddo Parish, with special 
reference to the city of Shreveport, La. Baton Rouge, La., State Depart¬ 
ment of Education, 1922. 136 p., incl. tables. 

MAINE. 

Augusta, Me. Bdard of Education. Report of the survey staff. Augusta, Me., 
Kennebec Journal Print Shop, 1922. 242 p. 

MARYLAND. 

General Education Board (N. Y.). Maryland Educational Survey Commission. 
Public, education in Maryland. New York, General Education Board, 1921. 
230 p., illus., charts, tables. 

Strayer, G. D. Abstract of a survey of the Baltimore public schools, 1920-21. 
Baltimore, Md., Board of School Commissioners, 1921. 54 p., front. 

- and others. Baltimore school survey. 2 vols. Baltimore, Md., Public 

Improvement Commission, 1921-22. 

Vol. 1, The schoolhouse and school building program. (1921.) 

Vol. 2, The administration of the public schools, and other studies, xxiv + 302 pp., 
tables, diagrams. (1922.) 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Spaulding, Frank E. Principles, policies, and plans for the improvement of 
the New Bedford public schools. New Bedford, Mass., School Commis¬ 
sioners, 1922. 

U. S. Bureau of Education. A survey of schools in Winchester, Mass. Bulletin, 
1922, no. 43. 193 p. 

- School building program for Gloucester, Mass. Bulletin, 1920, no. 23. 

16 p. 

MICHIGAN. 

Detroit, Mich. Department of Special Education and Bureau of Statistics and 
Reference. Age, grade, and nationality surveys. Research bulletins, no. 
2, Dec., 1920, 24 p., and no. 7, Jan., 1922. 

MINNESOTA. 

Neale, Mervin G., and Severson, Sigurd B. A school building program for the 
city of Winona, Minn. Minneapolis, Minn., University of Minnesota, 1922. 
26 p., graphs, tables. 

Sears, J. B., and others. The Arlington school survey. Minneapolis, Minn., Uni¬ 
versity of Minnesota, 1921. 58 p., graphs, tables, field maps. (Bulletin, 

vol. 24, no. 28.) 

Part 1 reviews school problems; Part 2, gives data and comparisons; Part 3, 
remedy. 

MISSOURI. 

Moore, Elizabeth. Rural school health survey. Saint Louis, Mo. Missouri 
Tuberculosis Association, 1922. 46 p. 

NEBRASKA. 

Olsen, Hans C. A study of educational inequalities, being a survey of certain 
aspects of public education in Buffalo County, Nebr. Kearney, State 
Industrial School Press, 1921. 163 p., front., maps. 




538 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 


NEW JERSEY. 

Report of the survey of the public-school system of Lawrence township. Mercer 
County, N. J. 

Women’s Club of Orange, N. J. Report of the study of the school systems of 
East Orange, Orange, South Orange, and West Orange. Orange, N. J., 
Chronicle Publishing Co., 1922. 48 p., incl. diagrams. 

NEW MEXICO. 

Bagley, W. C. Report on the New Mexican State educational unit and the 
general educational system of New Mexico. Santa Fe, New Mexico Pub. 
Corp., 1921. 62 p. 

NEW YORK. 

Butterworth, Julian E. Rural school survey of New York State. Ithaca, N. Y., 
Joint Committee on Rural Schools. 

Condition of school buildings. 

Eaton, Theodore. Rural-school survey of New York State. (Vocational edu¬ 
cation.) Ithaca, N. Y. 293 p. 

Haggerty, M. E. Rural school survey of New York State. (Educational 
achievement.) Ithaca, N. Y. 1922. 223 p., diagrams, tables. 

New York (State) University. Survey of Livingston County schools. Albany, 
N. Y., 1922. 143 p., illus., tables, charts, diagrams, maps, plans. (Bulletin 
no. 738.) 

Updegraff, Harlan. Rural school survey of New York State. (Financial sup¬ 
port.) Ithaca, N. Y., 1922. 233 p., diagram, tables. 

Works, G. A. Joint committee on rural schools. A report to rural school pa¬ 
trons. 1920. 272 p., illus., tables, charts. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

Bawden, W. T. Educational .survey of Elizabeth City, N. C. U. S. Bureau of 

« Education. Bulletin, 1921, no. 26. 43 p. 

Cook, Katherine M. Suggestions for the reorganization of the schools in Cur¬ 
rituck County, N. C. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1921, no. 24. 
31 p. 

State Educational Commission of North Carolina. Public education in North 
Carolina. 137 p., illus., graphs, tables. 

OHIO. 

Cleveland, Ohio. Board of Education. The first of a series of surveys of the 
department of instruction of the Cleveland public schools. Cleveland, Ohio, 
1922. 29 p., incl. tables, diagrams. 

Landrittel, F. C. Survey of the educational conditions in Fairfield County, 
Ohio. Columbus, Ohio, 1921. 53 p., tables. 

Packer, P. C., Anderson, H. W., and Brueckner, L. J. Survey of public-school 
building requirements in Cleveland Heights, Ohio. Cleveland, Ohio, Board 
of Education, 1920. 39 p. 

Riegel, Vernon M. A study of rural school conditions in Ohio. Columbus, Ohio 
Department of Public Instruction, 1920. 175 p. 

OKLAHOMA. 

Rinsland, Harry D. Survey of Johnston County, Okla. Ardmore, Ok la. 

U. S. Bureau of Education. Public education in Oklahoma. Washington, 
D. C., 1922. 420 p., maps, tables, charts, graphs. 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


539 


OREGON. 

Stetson, Fred L., and Almack, John C. County school systems of Oregon 
ranked in the order of their merit. Salem, Oreg., State Printing Dept., 

1921. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Harrisburg, Pa. Board of Education. Iteport of a survey of the system of 
supervision of the elementary schools. Harrisburg, 1920. 33 p., tables. 

La Rue, Daniel W., and Nagle, Chas. J. Educational survey of Honesdale, Pa. 

East Stroudsburg, Pa., Press Publishing Co., 1921. 

Public Education and Child Labor Association of Pennsylvania. Report of the 
Philadelphia school survey. 4 vols. Philadelphia, 1922. 1351 p., illus. 

Book I, Personnel, school plant. Book II, Organization, administration, pupils. 
Book III, Types of schools and teachers; vocational education. Book IV, Instruc¬ 
tion. 

Ross, Cannon. The status of county teachers’ institutes in Pennsylvania. 
Philadelphia, 1922. xvi+168 p., tables, forms. 

Thesis (Ph. D.), University of Pennsylvania. 

Scranton, Pa., Board of Education. Survey of the Scranton public schools, 
1918-1920. 

Updegraff, Harlan, and King, Leroy A. A survey of the fiscal policies of the 
State of Pennsylvania in the field of education. A report of the Citizens’ 
Committee on the Finances of Pennsylvania to Hon. Gifford Pinchot. 
Part II, Education. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Gibson, Carleton B. Industrial educational survey of Charleston, S. C. Char¬ 
leston, S. C., Walker, Evans, & Cogswell, 1920. 174 p. 

Thomas, John F. School survey of York County. Winthrop College Bulletin 14, 
no. 1, September, 1920. 87 p., illus., tables, diagrams' 

UTAH. 

Snoddy, George S., and Hyde, George E. Mental survey of Utah schools and 
adaptation of the Army beta tests. Salt Lake City, Utah, 1921. 

Published by University of Utah, Dept, of Psychology, in cooperation with the 
State Board of Insanity. 

VERMONT. 

State Board of Education. Rural schools of Vermont and their improvement. 
Montpelier, Vt., Capital City Press, 1922. 64 p., illus., plans. 

VIRGINIA. 

Dearborn, W. F., and others. Psychological and educational tests in the public 
schools of Winchester, Va. Charlottesville, Va., University of Virginia, 

1922. 54 p. 

Haggerty, M. E., and others. Virginia public schools. Part II, Educational 
tests. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y., World Book Co., 1921. xii+235 p., 

tables, charts. 

WEST VIRGINIA. 

Carmichael, H. E., and Ivoon, C. M. Educational survey of the schools of Clay 
District, Marshall County, W. Va. [n. p., 1922.] 43 p., incl. illus., por¬ 

traits, diagrams, front, (map). 

U. S. Bureau of Education. Educational survey of Wheeling, W. Va. Bulletin, 
1921, no. 28. 53 p. 


540 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 


West Virginia. Board of Education. Educational survey of the Philippi school 
system. Philippi, W. Va. 1921. 39 p. 

Distributed by the Public School Pub. Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

WISCONSIN. 

Cary, Fleming, and others. Educational progress in Wisconsin, 1918-1920. 
Madison, Wis., State Dept, of Public Instruction, 1921. xi+252 p., graphs, 
tables. 

XX. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

VIII. COST AND FINANCE. 

1. Arnett, Trevor. College and university finance. New York, General Edu¬ 

cation Board, 1922. xi+212 p. 

2. Burgess, W. Randolph. Trends of school cost. New York, Russell Sage 

Foundation, 1920. 142 p. 

3. Carter, Alexander, and Theisen, W. W. Publicity campaigns for school 

support. New York, World Book Co., 1921. 164 p. (School efficiency 
monographs.) 

4. Frasier, George W. The control of city school finances. Milwaukee, Bruce 

Pub. Co., 1922. 132 p. 

5. Graham, H. T., and others. The expenses of women college students. A 

survey of 114 colleges and universities. Prepared under the auspices of 
the Education Committee of the College Club of St. Louis Branch of the 
American Association of University Women. 1922. 8 p., tables. f°. 

6. Holy, T. C. Factors affecting cost of operation and relative efficiency of 

Iowa consolidated schools. Midland Schools, 37:105-106, December, 1922. 

7. Johnson, S. W. The teacher’s load. American School Board Journal, 

62 : 36-39, November; 43-^4, 112, December, 1921. 

8. Lindsay, E. E. School support in Iowa. Educational Administration and 

Supervision, 7: 500-509, 1921. 

9. -- School finance in Iowa. Journal of Educational Research, 5:112- 

119, 1922. 

10. National Committee for Chamber of Commerce Cooperation with the Pub¬ 

lic Schools. Know and help your schools. New York, Chicago, 1921. 
47 p. 

11. National Education Association. Research Department. Facts on the cost 

of public education and what they mean. Bulletin 1. 

12. Russell, W. F. School finance in Iowa cities. University of Iowa. Exten¬ 

sion Division. Bulletin, 1920, no. 69. Reported in Elementary School 
Journal, 22 :189-193, 1921. 

13. Slade, A. A. Taxation and school finance in Wyoming. School and Society, 

11:208-210,1920. 

14. Stevens, E. B. Cost accounting in universities. Educational Review 

60:226-243, 1920. 

15. Swift, F. H. School finance in Colorado. Journal of Educational Research 

3:647-667, 741-762, 1920. 

16 - - an d del Plaine, F. K. Public-school finance in Minnesota. Summary 

of a report prepared for the Minnesota Education Association Committee 
on School Tax and Sources of School Support. Minneapolis October 
1922. 59 p. 

17. - State policies in public-school finance. Washington, D. C., Govern¬ 

ment Printing Office, 1922. 54 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin 
1922, no. 6.) 





educational research. 


541 


IX. BUILDING, GROUNDS, AND EQUIPMENT. 

1. Abbot, Julia Wade. The housing and equipment of kindergartens. Wash¬ 

ington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 1921. 27 p. (U. S. Bureau of 
Education. Bulletin, 1921, no. 13.) 

2. Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education (National Edu¬ 

cation Association). High-school buildings and grounds. Washington, 
Government Printing Office, 1922. 49 p. (U. S'. Bureau of Education. 
Bulletin, 1922, no. 23.) 

3. Committee of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association. Standardiz¬ 

ing library work and library equipment for history in secondary schools. 
School Review, 29:135-150, 1921. 

4. Curtis, Henry S. School grounds and play. Washington, D. C., Govern¬ 

ment Printing Office, 1922. 31 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 
1921, no. 45.) 

5. Franzen, R. H., and Knight, F. B. Textbook selection. Baltimore, Warwick 

& York, 1922. 94 p. 

G. Garber, J. A. The school janitor; a study of the functions and administra¬ 
tion of school janitor service. Washington, D. C., Government Printing 
Office, 1922. 51 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1922, no. 24.) 

7. Glenn, Earl R. Past and present practice in high-school library book 

selection from the viewpoint of a science teacher. School Science and 
Mathematics, 21: 217-237, 1921. 

8. Horn, E. The selection of silent reading textbooks. Journal of Educational 

Research, 2 : 615-619, 1920. 

9. Lathrop, Edith A. Dormitories in connection with public secondary schools. 

Washington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 1922. 36 p. (U. S. Bureau 
of Education. Bulletin, 1922, no. 12.) 

10. Maxwell, C. R. The selection of textbooks. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 

1921. 139 p. 

LI. Miller, J. F. A comparison of the public library facilities in the different 
States. School and Society, 14: 287-288, 1921. 

12. Muerman, J. C. The district owned or controlled teachers’ home. Wash¬ 
ington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 1922. 19 p., plates. (U. S. 
Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1922, no. 16.) 

L3. Reeder, C. W. Statistical comparison of university libraries, 1915-1921. 
School and Society, 15:520-527, 1922. 

X. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE AND ENROLLMENT. 

1. Bonner, H. R. Compulsory attendance laws lack vigor. School Life (U. S. 

Bureau of Education), vol. 6, Jan. 1, 2, 14, 1921. 

2. - Compulsory attendance laws. American School Board Journal, 

59: 37-39; 60: 39-40, 47-106. 

3. - The conviction of legislators for failure to enact effective compul¬ 

sory attendance laws. American School Board Journal, 64:45^8, Feb¬ 
ruary, 1923. 

4. Byrne, Lee. High-scliool enrollments in large cities. American School 

Board Journal, March, 1921. p. 27-28. 

5. Counts, George Sylvester. The selective character of American secondary 

education. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1922. 162 p. (Sup¬ 
plementary educational monographs no. 19.) 

6. Ensign, Forest Chester. Compulsory school attendance and child labor. 

Iowa City, Iowa, Athens Press, 1921. 263 p. 

91348°— 24 - 35 




542 BIENNIAL SURVEY OP EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

7. Koos, Leonard V. The residential distribution of college students and its 

meaning to the junior-college problem. School and Society, 13: 557-562, 
May 7, 1921. 

8. - Where to establish junior colleges. School Review, 29: 414-433, 

1921. 

9. National Child Labor Committee. Notes on compilation of child labor and 

compulsory attendance laws as they affect the employment of children in 
agriculture. American Child, 2: 310-319, February, 1921. 

9a. Town, Clara H. Analytic study of a group of 5 and 6 year old children. 

University of Iowa. Studies in child welfare, vol. 1, no. 4, 87 p. 

10. Walters, Raymond. Statistics of. registration of 30 American universities 
for 1920. School and Society, 13:120-128, January 29, 1921. 

11* - Statistics of registration in American universities and colleges, 

1921. School and Society, 15:177-186, February 18, 1922. 

12. - Statistics of registration in American universities and colleges, 

1922. School and Society, 17:198-205, February, 1923. 

13. West, R. M., and Koos, L. V. The freshman class in 1940. School and So¬ 

ciety, 12:108, 1920. (Abstract of paper.) 

XI. RETARDATION AND ELIMINATION. 

1. Buckingham, B. R. An experiment in promotion. Journal of Educational 

Research, 3:326-335, May, 1921. 

2. Doughton, Isaac. Elimination of pupils in a small city. Study in Phoenix- 

ville, Pa. American School Board Journal, 61:42-44, September, 1920; 
61:37-38, October, 1920. 

3. Eaton, H. T. The scholarship of pupils who left school. School and Society, 

16:221-222, 1922. 

4. Gwinn, J. M. The influence of changing from school to school in school 

progress of children. Journal of Education, 96:374-375, October 19 
1922. 

5. Kelly, F. J., and Loomis, A. K. Retardation in one-room rural schools in 

Kansas. Journal of Educational Research, 1: 271-284, 1920. 

6. Learning, Rebecca E. Applying for working certificates. Psychological 

Clinic, 14:163-179, 1922. 

7. McCormick, B. E. A study of failures. School Review, 30 : 431-442, 1922. 

8. Nifenecker, E. A. Pupil’s progress through the grades. New York Board 

of Education, 1922. 169 p. (Bureau of Reference, Research, and 

Statistics. Publication no. 19.) 

9. Rogers, Agnes L. The message of educational psychology to parents and 

teachers. American Education, 24:12-20, 1920. 

10. Smith, Harvey A. A study of higli-school failures and their causes. Edu¬ 
cational Administration and Supervision, 8:557-572, 1922. 

XII. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. 

1. Anderson, V. V. Education of mental defectives in State and private insti¬ 

tutions and in special classes in public schools in the United States. 
Mental Hygiene, 5: 85-122, 1921. 

2. Bankes, W. J. Model platoon school developed by Akron Teachers’ College. 

School Life (U. S. Bureau of Education), 8:135-137, February, 1923. 

3. Beatley, Bancroft. The relative standing of students in secondary school on 

comprehension entrance examinations and in college. School Review 
30:141-147, 1922. 





EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


543 


4. Berry, Chas. S. The classification by tests of intelligence of 10,000 first- 

grade pupils. Journal of Educational Research, 6:185-203, October, 
1922. 

5. Beverly, Clara. Self-measurement by elementary school pupils. English 

Journal, 9 : 331-337, 1920. 

G. Branson, Ernest P. An experiment in arranging liigh-school sections on the 
basis of general ability.- Journal of Educational Research, 3:53-55, 
January, 1921. 

7. Breed, F. S., and Breslich, E. R. Intelligence tests and the classification of 
pupils. School Review, 30: 51-66, 210-226, 1922. 

S. Briggs, Thomas H. Extra-curricular activities in junior high schools. 
Educational Administration and Supervision, 8:1-9, January, 1922. 

9. - Comparative results in intermediate and elementary schools at Los 

Angeles. Journal of Educational Research, 2 : 681-692, November, 1920. 

10. - The junior high school. New York, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1920. 

348 p. 

11. Brown, Gilbert L. Inequality of educational opportunity. Journal of 

Educational Research, 3:195-200, March, 1921. 

12. Callihan, T. W. An experiment in the use of intelligence tests as a basis for 

proper grouping and promotions in the eighth grade. Elementary School 
Journal, 21: 465-469, February, 1921. 

13. Carback, C. Grouping of children by abilities and consequent changes in 

school procedure. (4) Procedure in Philadelphia. University of Penn¬ 
sylvania. Bulletin 23, no. 1, p. 269-272. 

14. Chapman, J. Crosby, and Eby, H. L. A comparative study, by educational 

measurements, of one-room rural-school children and city-school children. 
Journal of Educational Research, 2:636-646, October, 1920. 

15. Clement, J. A., and Clement, J. H. Summary of organization and adminis¬ 

tration of 40 junior liigh-school systems of Kansas. Educational Adminis¬ 
tration and Supervision, 8:137-142, March, 1922. 

15a.-A general administrative study of 40 junior high-scliool systems. 

Kansas Teacher, 14:10-14, March, 1922. 

16. Cole, L. W. Prevention of the lockstep in schools. School and Society, 

15:211-217, 1922. 

17. Cox, P. W. L. Providing for individual differences by means of grouping 

by abilities. University of Pennsylvania. Bulletin 23, no. 1, p. 233-244, 
1922. 

18. Cunningham, A. B. The sex element in college grades. School and Society, 

14 : 523-525, December 3, 1921. 

19. Dewey, Evelyn. The Dalton laboratory plan. New York, E. P. Dutton & 

Co., 1922. 173 p. 

20. Dawson, Chas. D. Classification of kindergarten children for first grade 

by means of the Binet scale. Journal of Educational Research, 6:412- 
422, December, 1922. 

21. - Educational measurement in Grand Rapids. Journal of Educa¬ 

tional Research, 2: 611-614, 1920. 

22. Dickson, Virgil E. What first-grade children can do in school as related to 

what is shown by mental tests. Journal of Educational Research, 
2: 475-480, June, 1920. 

23. Dvorak, August. Recognition of individual differences in the junior high 

school. School Review, 30:679-685, November, 1922. 

24. (Editorial.) Time distribution in some Louisiana schools. Journal of 

Educational Research, 6:88-90, June, 1922. 

25. (Editorial.) Recognizing individual differences. Elementary School 

Journal, 21:164-166, November, 1920. 






544 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

26. (Editorial.) Grading by means of standardized tests. Journal of Educa¬ 

tional Research, 5: 449, May, 1922. 

27. Fordyce, Charles. Intelligence tests in classifying children in the elemen¬ 

tary schools. Journal of Educational Research, 4:40-13, June, 1921. 

28. Franzen, Raymond. The accomplishment quotient. Teachers College 

Record, 21:433-440, 1920. 

29. Freeman, Frank N. Provision in the elementary school for superior chil¬ 

dren. Elementary School Journal, 21:117-131, October, 1920. 

30. Frost, Norman. A comparative study of achievement in country and 

town schools. New York, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1921. 
70 p. (Contributions to education no. 111.) 

31. Gesell, A. Exceptional children and public-school policy. Yale University 

Press, 1921. 66 p. 

32. Glass, James M. Classification of pupils in ability groups. School Review, 

28:495-508, 1920. 

33. Gould, Arthur. The intermediate schools of Los Angeles. School Review, 

28:419-435, 1920. 

34. Henderson, B. R. Report on Illinois examination given to the sixth, 

seventh, and eighth grades in West Chester. University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania. Bulletin 23, no. 1, 100-103, 1922. 

35. Henry, T. S. Classroom problems in the study of gifted children. Nine¬ 

teenth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. 
Bloomington, Public School Pub. Co. 125 p. 

36. Hines, Harlan C. What Los Angeles is doing with the results of testing. 

Journal of Educational Research, 5: 45-57, January, 1922. 

37. Hopkins, L. Thomas. The marking system of the college examination 

board. Cambridge, Mass., Graduate School of Education, Harvard Uni¬ 
versity, 1921. 15 p. 

38. Horn, John L. Caring for highly endowed pupils. School Review, 29: 776- 

781, 1921. 

39. Hughes, W. H. Provisions for individual differences in high-scliool admin¬ 

istration. Journal of Educational Research, 5: 62-71, January, 1922. 

40. - Standardizing procedure in a combination system of supervised 

study, varying scope of work, and weighted credit. Journal of Educa¬ 
tional Research, 2:547-556, September, 1920. 

41. Jackson, Nelson A. Pupil government in secondary schools. Education, 

42:197-210, December, 1921. 

42. Kent, R. A. Experiment in grading and placing of children. American 

School Board Journal, 61:30-32, December, 1920. Also 62:40-41, Feb¬ 
ruary, 1921. 

43. King, L. A. Fifth annual report of the Bureau of Educational Measure¬ 

ments, University of Pennsylvania. University of Pennsylvania. Bulletin 
23, 1: 67-95, 1922. 

44. Koos, Frank H. Educational inequalities. National School Digest, 39: 

20-22, May-June, 1920. 

45. Koos, Leonard V. Junior college courses in 1920-21. School Review, 

29: 586-592, 668-678, 1921. 

46. •- The peculiar functions of the junior high schools; their relative 

importance. School Review, 28: 673-681, 1920. 

47. Kuntz, E. E. Grouping of children by abilities and consequent changes in 

school procedure. (3) Procedure in Lansford. University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania. Bulletin 23, 1: 267-269, 1922. 

48. Kyte, George C. Evolution of a marking system. Educational Adminis¬ 

tration and Supervision, 6:9-16, January, 1920. 




EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 545 

49. Lowell, Frances. An experiment in classifying primary children by mental 

age. Journal of Applied Psychology, 6: 276-290, September, 1922. 

50. Lyman, R. L. The Ben Blewett junior high school of St. Louis. School 

Review, 28: 26-40, 97-111, 1920. 

51. - The Washington junior high school, Rochester, N. Y. School 

Review, 28:178-204, 1920. 

52. - The junior high school of Montclair, N. J. School Review, 

29:495-509, 1921. 

53. Mahoney, P. J. Use of intelligence and achievement tests for making edu¬ 

cational readjustments and in developing future school policies. University 
of Pennsylvania. Bulletin 23, 1: 95-100, 1922. 

54. Marot, Mary S. School records an experiment. New York, Bureau of 

Educational Experiments, 1922. p. 44. (Bulletin no. 12.) 

55. Monroe, Walter S. Relation of sectioning a class to the effectiveness of 

instruction. University of Illinois. Bureau of Educational Research. 
Bulletin 11, 1922. 18 p. 

56. - Written examinations and their improvements. University of 

Illinois. Bulletin 20, no. 9, 1922. 71 p. (Bureau of Educational Re¬ 

search. Bulletin no. 9.) 

57. Odell, C. W. The double-track system in a small school. Elementary 

School Journal, 22: 544-546, March, 1922. 

58. Omans, A. C. Provisions for ability grouping in junior and senior high 

school. American School Board Journal, 65: 55-58,138, October, 1922. 

59. Omans, A. C., and Omans, Mrs. L. R. An interesting school experiment. 

American Schoolmaster, 13:126-131, 1920. 

60. Parkhurst, Helen. Education on the Dalton plan. New York, E. P. 

Dutton & Co., 1922. xviii+278 p. 

61. Philips, H. S. Report of a committee on junior high school. Denver, Colo. 

Elementary School Journal, 23:13-24, September, 1922. 

62. Pintner, Rudolph, and Marshall, Helen. Results of the combined mental- 

educational survey tests. Journal of Educational Psychology, 12: 82-91, 
February, 1921. 

63. Poole, G. Four cases of diagnostic teaching. Psychological Clinic, 13: 225- 

237, 1922. 

64. Poole, Gladys E. The attempt to teach. Psychological Clinic, 13:173-190, 

May, 1920. 

65. Porter, John E. Some effects of segregation on scholarship at Northwestern 

high school. Detroit Journal of Education, 2: 60-65, February, 1922. 

66. Pratt, O. C. Status of the junior high school in larger cities. School 

Review, 30: 663-670, 1922. 

67. Rapeer, Louis W. The consolidated rural school. New York, Charles 

Scribner’s Sons, 1920. xiii+545 p. 

68. Rapp, A. A. Grouping of children by abilities and consequent changes in 

school procedure. (2) Procedure in reading. University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania. Bulletin 23, 1: 263-267, 1922. 

69. Rathbun, J. Chas. Ranking students from their literal grades. School and 

Society, 16 : 326-335, 1922. 

70. Reamer, J. C. Mental and educational measurements of the deaf. Psy¬ 

chological Monograph 29, no. 3, p. 130, 1921. 

71. Richards, E. L. The elementary school and the individual child. Mental 

Hygiene, 5:707-723, 1921. 

72. Rodgers, J. H. Junior high-school curricula and programs. School Re¬ 

view, 29:198-205, 1921. 

73. Satchell, J. Kenneth. Student participation in high-school administration. 

School Review, 30:733-741, December, 1922. 





546 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1020-1922. 

74. Smith, W. A. Junior high-school practices in 64 cities. Educational Ad¬ 

ministration and Supervision, 6:139-149, 1920. 

75. Spain, C. L. Grouping of children by abilities and consequent changes in 

school procedure. (1) Procedure in Detroit. University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania. Bulletin 23, 1: 257-263, 1922. 

76. - The platoon school in Detroit. The Detroit Educational Bulletin. 

Research bulletin no. 2, 1920. 108 p. 

77. -Moehlman, A. B., and Harrington, H. L. The intermediate school 

in Detroit. Detroit educational bulletin. Research bulletin no. 6, De¬ 
cember, 1921. 39 p. 

78. Stark, W. E. Every teacher’s problems. New York, American Book Co., 

1922. 368 p. 

79. Stetson, Paul A. Homogeneous grouping in the first year of a five-year 

high school. School Review, 29: 351-365, 1921. 

SO. Stockton, J. L., Davis, C., and Cronin, M. A. Criteria for the regrading of 
schools. Elementary School Journal, 22: 55-66, 1921. 

81. Terman, L. M., and others. Intelligence tests and school reorganization. 

Subcommittee report, N. E. A. New York, World Book Co., 1922. 
viii-flll p. 

82. Theisen, W. W. The relative progress of VII-B groups sectioned on the 

basis of ability, Cleveland. Journal of Educational Research, 5:295- 
305, 1922. 

83. Thornton, Natalie. Women’s forum. Teachers College Record, 23:305- 

326, September, 1922. 

84. University of Illinois. Bureau of Educational Research. Relation of size 

of class to school efficiency. Bulletin, no. 10, 1922. 39 p. 

85. Voorhees, J. H. An experiment carried on with the pupils of the Russell 

prevocational room. Journal of Educational Research, 4: 378-389, De¬ 
cember, 1921. 

86. Wallin, J. E. W. The achievement of subnormal children in standardized 

educational tests. Miami University. Bulletin 20, no. 7, p. 97, April, 
1922. 

87. Washburne, C. W. The individual system in Winnetka. Elementary 

School Journal, 2 : 52-68, 1920. 

88. Westfall, W. D. A. Some samples of coefficients of correlation. School 

and Society, 13: 359-360, March 19, 1921. 

89. Wood, Ben D. The measurement of college work. Report of an experi¬ 

ment conducted by the staff of instructors in contemporary civilization 
in Columbia University with the assistance of Prof. E. L. Thorndike, 
of Teachers College. Educational Administration and Supervision, 
7 : 301-334, September, 1921. 

XIII. TEACHING AND SUPERVISORY STAFF. 

1. Almack, J. S. The duties and training of city superintendents. American 

School Board Journal, 62: 31-32, April, 1921. 

2. Anderson, D. A. Basic courses in education. School and Society, 13: 59-60, 

January 8, 1921. 

3. Arnett, Trevor. Teachers’ salaries in certain endowed colleges and univer¬ 

sities in the United States. New York City, General Education Board, 
1921. 42 p. (Occasional Papers No. 7.) 

4. Benson, Charles E. The output of professional schools for teachers. Balti¬ 

more, Warwick & York, 1922. x+88 p. 

5. Bonner, H. R. Salary outlook for liigh-school teachers. School Review 

30:414-423, 1922, 




EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


547 


6. Bonner, H. R. Salaries of teachers in four-year high schools in 1918 and 1921. 

American School Board Journal, 63:56-57, December, 1921. 

7. Brooks, Samuel S. Improving schools by standardized tests. Boston, 

Houghton Mifflin Co., 1922. 278 p. 

S. Brueckner, L. J. Field work as a means of training student-teachers. Edu¬ 
cational Administration and Supervision, 8:343-348, September, 1922. 

9. Burgess, W. Randolph. The rate of progress in teacher preparation. Jour¬ 
nal of Educational Research, 4:180-1S6, October, 1921. 

10. - The education of teachers in 14 States. Journal of Educational 

Research, 3:161-172, March, 1921. 

11. Burnham, W. H. A survey of the teaching of mental hygiene in the normal 

schools. Mental Hygiene, 5:19—15, 1921. 

12. Coffman, Lotus D. Teacher-training departments in Minnesota high schools. 

New York, General Education Board, 1920. 92 p. 

13. Cook, Katherine M. The certification of teachers governed by general State 

laws and regulations. Washington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 

1921. 244 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1921, no. 22.) 

14. - Supervision of rural schools. Washington, D. C., Government Print¬ 

ing Office, 1922. Ill p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1922, 
no. 10.) 

15. Davis, C. O. The training and experience of the teachers in the high schools 

accredited by the North Central Association. School Review, 30: 335-354. 

1922. 

16. -The duties of high-school principals. School Review, 29: 337-350, 

October, 1921. 

17. Dawson, Edgar. Preparation of teachers of the social studies for the sec¬ 

ondary schools. Washington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 1922. 
24 p. (IJ. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1922, no. 3.) 

18. Deffenbaugh, W. S. Salaries of administrative officers and their assistants 

in school systems of 100,000 inhabitants or more. Washington, D. C., 
Government Printing Office, 1922. 38 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. 

Bulletin, 1921, no. 30.) 

19. Dickson, Virgil E., and Norton, John K. The Otis group intelligence scale 

applied to the elementary school graduating classes of Oakland, Calif. 
Journal of Educational Research, 3:106-115, February, 1921. 

20. Dolch, Edward William, jr. Pupils’ judgments of their teachers. Peda¬ 

gogical Seminary, 27 :195-199, 1920. 

21. Douglas, A. A. Market for prospective high-school teachers. School and 

Society, 13: 602-606, 1921. 

22. Eaves, Lucile. Old-age support of women teachers. A study by the De¬ 

partment of Research of the Women’s Educational and Industrial Union. 
Boston, Mass. 1921. 122 p. (Studies in economic relations of women, 

vol. 11.) 

23. Foster, H. H. The status of Smith-IIughes practice teaching. Baltimore, 

King Brothers, 1921. 32-38 p. (Society of College Teachers of Educa¬ 
tion. Studies in education, no. 10.) 

24. Franzen, C. G. F. A comparison between general and special methods 

courses in the teaching of high-school subjects. University of Iowa. 
Studies in education, vol. II, no. 3, 36 p., March, 1922. 

25. Gist, A. S., and King, Wm. A. The efficiency of the principalship from the 

standpoint of the teacher. Elementary School Teacher, 23:120-126, 
October, 1922. 

26. Gleim, S. C. The visiting teacher. Washington, D. C., Government Print¬ 

ing Office, 1921. 23 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1921, 

po, 10.) 





548 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1020-1022. 


27 Gray, Wm. S. The use of a time record blank in the standardization and 
supervision of student-teaching courses. Educational Administration 
and Supervision, 7:121-132, March, 1921. 

28. Greenan, John T. The teacher’s school week. School Review, 30:592-598, 

1922. 

29. Hanly, A. J. The best teacher from the child’s viewpoint. Oregon Teach¬ 

ers’ Monthly, 25: 594-595, 1921. 

30. Hertzog, Walter Scott. State maintenance for teachers in training. Balti¬ 

more, Warwick & York, 1921. 144 p. 

31. Hudelson, Earl. The profession of principal. School Review, 30:15-23, 

1922. 

32. Johnson, Buford. The use of tests in the evaluation of methods of in¬ 

struction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 11: 78-88, February, 1920. 

33. Johnson, S. W. The relations existing between superintendents and school 

boards in Iowa. American School Board Journal, 59:43-45, 87, Decem¬ 
ber, 1920 ; 60: 35-37, January, 1921; 60: 48-49, February, 1921; 60: 31-33, 
121, March, 1921. 

34. Kallom, Arthur W. Intelligence tests and the classroom teacher. Journal 

of Educational Research, 5:389-399, May, 1922. 

35. King, LeRoy Albert. Status of the rural teacher in Pennsylvania. Wash¬ 

ington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 1922. ivJ-87 p. (U. S. Bu¬ 
reau of Education. Bulletin, 1921, no. 34.) 

36. Knight, F. B. Qualities related to success in teaching. New York, Colum¬ 

bia University. 67 p. (Teachers College. Contributions to education, 
no. 120.) 

37. Koos, L. V. Standards in graduate work in education. Washington, D. C., 

Government Printing Office, 1921. 18 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. 

Bulletin, 1921, no. 38.) 

38. Lantis, L. O. Educational sociology in normal schools. School and Society, 

16: 669-672, December 9, 1922. 

39. Learned, William S., and others. The professional preparation of teachers 

for American public schools; a study based upon an examination of tax- 
supported normal schools in the State of Missouri. New York City, Car¬ 
negie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1920. 475 p. 

40. Lowry, J. G. The attitude of college students toward teaching. Ohio Edu¬ 

cational Monthly, 69 : 45-47, 1920. 

41. McClure, Worth. Professionalizing the principalship. Elementary School 

Journal, 21: 735-743, 1921. 

42. Massachusetts. Department of Education. Division of Elementary and 

Secondary Education and Normal Schools. Salaries of teachers in the 
public-day schools of Massachusetts, 1921. Boston, 1921. 24 p. 

43. Minnick, J. H. How have high-school teachers obtained their practical 

work? Educational Review, 62:332-336, 1922. 

44. Morrison, J. Cayce. Supervision from the teacher’s viewpoint. Journal of 

Educational Method, 1:131-138, December, 1921. 

45. - The legal status of the city school superintendent. Baltimore, War¬ 

wick & York, 1922. 162 p. 

46. Morton, Robert L. Examination method of licensing teachers. Educational 

Administration and Supervision, 6:421-432, 1920. 

47. National Education Association. Salary schedules, 1920-1921; cities of the 

United States of 100,000 population or over. Washington, National Edu¬ 
cation Association, 1922. 31 p. (Bulletin No. 19.) 

48. Osburn. The personal characteristics of the teacher. Educational Ad¬ 

ministration and Supervision, 6: 74-85, 1920. 



EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


549 


49. Public Education Association of the City of New York. The visiting teacher. 

New York, Public Education Association of the City of New York, 1921. 
64 p. 

50. Riemer, G. C. L. The preparation of high-school teachers in the State of 

Pennsylvania. Educational Administration and Supervision, 8:148-165, 
March, 1922. 

51. Rogers, Bertha M., and Baker, Teresa. A diagnostic and remedial activity 

in supervision. Journal of Educational Research, 5 : 21-26, January, 1922. 

52. Ross, Cannon. The status of county teachers’ institutes in Pennsylvania. 

Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, 1922. 168 p. 

53. Ruch, Giles Murrel. A study of the mental, pedagogical, and physical de¬ 

velopment of the pupils of the junior division of the University High 
School. Eugene, Oreg., University of Oregon, 1920. 48 p. 

54. Russell, Charles. The improvement of the city elementary school-teacher 

in service. New York, 1922. 139 p. (Teachers’ College, Columbia Uni¬ 

versity. Contributions to education, No. 128.) 

55. Schutte, T. H. Distribution of time of student-teachers in a State teachers’ 

college. Educational Administration and Supervision, 8:215-222, April, 
1922. 

56. Smith, Homer J. Industrial and vocational teacher training. Industrial 

Arts Magazine, 11: 333-336, 417-421, September, October, and November, 
1922. 

57. - Special preparation for junior high-school service. Educational 

Administration and Supervision, 8: 513-518, December, 1922. 

58. Stayer, Samuel B. The status of teachers in junior high schools. School 

Review, 29 : 379-387, 1921. 

59. Stetson, F. L. The professional equipment of high-school teachers in 

Oregon. Society of College Teachers of Education. Studies in education, 
11:122-130, 1922. 

60. Strayer, George D. Actual school conditions in 359 American cities. 

American City, 23: 464-467, 1920. 

61. Struble, George G. A study of school-board personnel. American School 

Board Journal, 65: 48-49, 137, 1922. 

62. Texas, University of. Conference upon the teacher problem in Austin, Tex. 

Bulletin No. 2209, 1922, 95 p. 

63. Waples, D. Can high-school principals improve the college-training pro¬ 

gram? School Science and Mathematics, 22:457, November, 1922. 

64. Williams, E. I. F. Administration of observation in the teacher-training 

institutions of the United States. Educational Administration and 
Supervision, 8: 331-342, September, 1922. 

65. - Demonstration teaching and observation in the teacher-training 

institutions of the United States. Society of College Teachers of Educa¬ 
tion. Studies in education, 11:103-121, 1922. 

XIV. METHODS OF LEARNING AND TEACHING. 

1. Alderman, Grover H. The lecture method versus the question and answer 

method. School Review, 30: 205-209, 1922. 

2. Arps, George F. Work with knowledge of results versus work without 

knowledge of results. Princeton, Psychological Review Co., 1920, 41 p. 
(Psychological Review monographs, whole no. 125, vol. 28, no. 3.) 

3. Book, Wm. F., and Norvell, Lee. The will to learn. Pedagogical Seminary, 

29: 305-362, December, 1922. 




550 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

4. Bridges, J. W., and Dollinger, V. M. The correlation between interests and 

abilities in college courses. Psychological Review, 27:308—314, 1920. 

5. Edwards, A. S. The fundamental principles of learning and study. Balti¬ 

more, Warwick & York, 1920. 240 p. 

G. Freeland, George E. A year’s study of the daily learning of six children. 
Pedagogical Seminary, 28:97-115, June, 1921. 

7. Garrett, II. E. A study of the relation of accuracy to speed. New York, 

1922, 104 p. (Columbia University. Archives of psychology, no. 56.) 

8. Holton, Edwin L. A study of method of presenting subject matter to under¬ 

graduates in college. School and Society, 11: 58, 59, 1920. 

9. Horne, H. H. University students on the discussions method. School and 

Society, 16:218-221, August 19, 1922. 

10. Hunter, George W. An experiment in the use of three different methods of 

teaching in the classroom. School Science and Mathematics, 21: 875-890, 
December, 1921; 22 : 20-32, January, 1922. 

11. Kirkpatrick, Edwin A. Imagination and its place in education. Boston, 

Ginn & Co., 1920. 214 p. 

12. Laird, Remmers, and Peterson. An experimental study of the influences of 

organization of material for memorizing upon its retention. Journal of 
Experimental Psychology, 6:69-81, February, 1923. 

13. Linke, Edith A. An experiment in teaching in response to children’s ques¬ 

tions. Teachers College Record, 21: 55-67, 1920. 

14. McCall, Chassell, and Hollingworth. Experimental measurements. Teach¬ 

ers College Record, 23 : 218-228, 1922. 

15. Monroe, Walter S. Types of learning required of pupils in the seventh and 

eighth grades and in the high school. University of Illinois. Bulletin, 
vol. 19, no. 15, December 12, 1921. Bureau of Educational Research. Bul¬ 
letin, no. 7, 16 p. 

16. Parker, S. C. Problem solving or practice in thinking. Elementary School 

Journal, 21:16-25, 98-111, 174-188, 257-272, 1920. 

17. Peaks, Archibald G. Periodic variations in efficiency. Baltimore, Warwick 

& York, 1921. 95 p. (Educational psychology monographs, no. 23.) 

18. Pyle, W. H. The psychology of learning. Baltimore, Warwick & York, 

1921. 308 p. 

19. Richardson, J. W. The campaign method in elementary education. Journal 

of Educational Research, 2 : 481-492, January, 1920. 

20. Robinson, Edward S., and Heron, William T. Results of variation in length 

of memorized material. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 5: 428-440, 

, December, 1922. 

21. Stratton, G. M. Developing mental power. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 

1922. 77 p. 

22. Sullivan, E. T. Mood in relation to performance. New York, Columbia Uni¬ 

versity, 1922. 71 p. (Archives of psychology no. 53.) 

23. Taylor, Maurice W. Some points in favor of the socialized recitation. 

Elementary School Journal, 22: 776-780, 1922. 

24. Thorndike, E. L. The correlation between interests and abilities. Psycho¬ 

logical Review, 28 : 374-376, 1921. 

25. Waples, D. An approach to the synthetic study of interest in education. 

Journal of Educational Psychology, 11:301-315, 369-384, 445-458, 1920. 

26. Washington, D. C. U. S. Bureau of Education. Library leaflet no. 17, 

February, 1923. 

27. Weber, Joseph J. Comparative effectiveness of some visual aids in seventh- 

grade instruction. Chicago, Educational Screen, Inc. p. 131, 1922. 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, 


551 


XY. METHODS OF STUDY. 

1. Achilles, Edith M. Experimental studies in recall and recognition. New 

York, Columbia University, 1920. v+80 p. (Archives of psychology 
no. 44.) 

2. Clayton, F. T. Home conditions of study and pupil-attitude toward school 

work. School and Society, 17: 221-223, February 24, 1928. 

3. Garth, Thomas R. How college students prepare their lessons. Pedagogi¬ 

cal Seminary, 27:90-98, 1920. 

4. Germane, C. E. Outlining and summarizing compared with reading as 

methods of studying. Twentieth yearbook of the National Society for 
the Study of Education, Part II, Chap. VII, p. 103-113. Bloomington, 
Ill., Public School Pub. Co., 1921. 

5. Robinson, Edward S. The relative efficiencies of distributed and concen¬ 

trated study in memorizing. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 
4:327-343, October, 1921. 

6. Skaggs, E. B. The relative value of grouped and interspersed recitations. 

Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3: 424-446, 1920. 

7. Thorndyke, Elizabeth. Environment as a factor in a pupil’s study life. 

Education, 40: 470-483, 1920. 

8. Webb, L. W. Student’s methods of studying a certain subject. Journal of 

Educational Psychology, 11:193-206, April, 1920. 

9. - One element to be considered in measuring effective teaching. 

School and Society, 13 : 206-209, February 12, 1921. 

10. Woody, Clifford. Effectiveness of oral versus silent reading in the initial 

memorization of poems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 13: 477-483, 
1922. 

11. Yoakum, G. A. The effect of a single reading. Twentieth yearbook of the 

National Society for the Study of Education, Part II, Chap. VI. Bloom¬ 
ington, Ill., Public School Pub. Co., 1921. 

XVI. CURRICULUM. 

General. 

1. Bobbitt, Franklin. Curriculum-making in Los Angeles. Chicago, Univer¬ 

sity of Chicago Press, 1922. 106 p. (Supplementary education mono¬ 

graphs, no. 20, June, 1922.) 

2. Bonser, F. G. The elementary school curriculum. New York, Macmillan 

Co., 1920. xv-f449 p. 

3. Kehr, Marguerite W. A comparative study of the curricula for men and 

women in the colleges and universities of the United States. Journal of 
the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, vol. 14, p. 26, December, 1920. 

4. Meriam, J. L. Child life and the curriculum. Yonkers, N. Y., World Book 

Co., 1920. xii+538 p. 

5. Mott, Paul R., and Devricks, Robert K. An accounting of general values 

in the small high-school curriculum. School Review, 29:119-134, 1921. 

6. National Society for the Study of Education. Twentieth yearbook, Part 

I. Materials of instruction. Bloomington, Ill. Public School Pub. Co., 
1921. 194 p. 

7. Wells, Margaret E. A project curriculum. Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott 

Co., 1921. xiii+338 p. 

8. Wilson, H. B., and others. The course of study in the work of the modern 

school. 14 p. No. 1. Arithmetic, 91 p. No. 2. Home economics, 56 p. 
No. 3. Nature study, 104 p. No. 4. Geography, 117 p. No. 5. Penmanship, 
28 p. Course of study monographs, public schools, Berkeley, Calif. 



552 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

i. Reading. 

1. Anderson, C. J„ and Merton, E. Remedial work in silent reading. Elemen¬ 

tary School Journal, 21:336-548, 1921. 

2. Ballou, Fanay. Remaking a normal-school course in reading. Educational 

Administration and Supervision, 8:519-529, December, 1922. 

3. Bamberger, Florence E. The effect of the physical make-up of a book upon 

children’s selection. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1922. 161 p. 

4. Blackhurst, J. Herbert. Size of type as related to readability in the first 

four grades. School and Society, 16:697-700, December 16, 1922. 

5. -The typography of elementary school readers. School and Society, 

14:407-408, November 5, 1921. 

6. Breitweiser, J. V. Training for rapid reading. University of California, 

Bureau of Research in Education. Study no. 6, 1922. p. 15-17. 

7. Burgess, Mary A. Classroom grouping for silent reading drill. Elementary 

School Journal, 22: 269-278, 1921. 

8. - The measurement of silent reading. New York, Russell Sage Foun¬ 

dation, 1921. 163 p. 

9. Buswell, G. T. Fundamental reading habits; a study of their development. 

University of Chicago. Supplementary educational monographs, no. 21, 
1922. xiv+150 p. 

10. - An experimental study of the eye-voice span in reading. Univer¬ 

sity of Chicago. Supplementary educational monographs, no. 17, 1920. 
xii -f 106 p. 

11. Chamberlain, Essie. Literary attitudes and reactions of boys and girls. 

Illinois Association of Teachers of English. Bulletin 13, January 1, 1921. 
p. 1-15. 

12. Dunn, Fannie Wyche. Interest factors in primary reading material. New 

l T ork, Columbia University, 1921. 70 p. (Teachers College. Contribu¬ 

tions to education, no. 113.) 

13. Eaton, H. T. What high-school pupils like to read. Education, 43: 204-209, 

December, 1922. 

14. Selke, Erich, and Selke, G. A. A study of the vocabularies of beginning 

books in 12 reading methods. Elementary School Journal, 22:745-749, 
1922. 

15. Fernald, Grace M., and Keller, Helen. The effect of kinaesthetic factors in 

the development of word recognition in the case of nonreaders. Journal 
of Educational Research, 4:355-377, December, 1921. 

16. Freeman, Frank N. Clinical method as a method in experimental educa¬ 

tion. Journal of Applied Psychology, 4:126-142, December, 1920. 

17. Germane, C* E., and Germane, E. G. Silent reading. Chicago, New York, 

Row, Peterson & Co., 1922. 383 p. 

18. Gates, Arthur I. The psychology of reading and spelling, with special ref¬ 

erence to disability. New York, Columbia University. 106 p. (Teachers 
College. Contributions to education, no. 129.) 

19. Gilliland, A. R. The effect of rate of silent reading on ability to recall. 

Journal of Educational Psychology, 11:474-479, 1920. 

20. Gray, Clarence T. Deficiencies in reading ability; their diagnosis and 

remedies. New York, D. C. Heath •& Co., 1922. 420 p. 

21. Gray, William S., and others. Remedial cases in reading; their diagnosis 

and treatment. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1922. 208 p. 

(Supplementary educational monographs, no. 22.) 

22. Greene, H. A. The result of a state-wide survey of silent reading in Iowa. 

State University of Iowa. Journal of Educational Research, 6:182-184, 
September, 1922. 





EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 553 

23. Green, Jenny Lind. When children read for fun. School and Society, 

16: 614-616, November 25, 1922. 

24. Harlan, C. L., and Madsen, I. N. The testing and teaching of silent read¬ 

ing. The Lewiston (Idaho) State Normal School. Bulletin, January, 
1922. 

25. Harvey, Nathan A. An experiment in demonstrating the value of rapid 

reading. American Schoolmaster, 13:107-108, 1920. 

26. Hawley, William E. The effect of clear objectives on the teaching of read¬ 

ing. Journal of Educational Research, 3:254-260, April, 1921. 

27. Holmes, Hilda M. The case of phonics. Sierra Educational News, 16: 400- 

402, 1920. 

28. Hoover, J. H. Motivated drill work in third grade arithmetic and silent 

reading. Journal of Educational Research, 4: 200-211, October, 1921. 

29. Hosiac, James F. Empirical studies in school reading. New York, Colum¬ 

bia University, 1921. 174 p. (Teachers College. Contributions to educa¬ 
tion, no. 114.) 

30. - The contents of school reading books. School and Society, 

11:179-180, 1920. 

31. Hunt, C. W. Extensive reading—a factor in developing reading ability. 

School and Society, 11:269-261, 1920. 

32. James, M. E. Using the results of measurement in reading in training 

student-teachers. Elementary School Journal, 23:190-196, November, 
1922. 

33. Jordan, Arthur M. Children’s interest in reading. New York, Columbia 

University, 1921. 143 p. (Teachers College. Contributions to education 

no. 107.) 

34. Judd, C. H., and Buswell, G. T. Silent reading; a study of the various 

types. Chicago, University of Chicago, 1922. xiii+160 p. (Supple¬ 
mentary educational monographs no. 23.) 

35. King, Cora E. Favorite poems for children of elementary school age. 

Teachers College Record, 23:255-273, May, 1922. 

36. LaRue, Daniel W. The shorthand alphabet and the reforming of language. 

Scientific Monthly, 15:271-281, September, 1922. 

37. Leonard, Sterling A. Essential principles of teaching reading and literature. 

Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Co., 1922. 460 p. 

38. Lloyd, S. M., and Gray, C. T. Reading in a Texas city; diagnosis and 

remedy. University of Texas. Bulletin no. 1853. 

39. McFarland, B. B. A scientific study of the teaching of reading. Kinder¬ 

garten and First Grade, 5:359-363, November, 1922. 

40. Mitchell, Lucy Sprague. Here and now story book. New York, E. P. Dut¬ 

ton & Co., 1921. Illus. xii-}-300 p. 

41. O’Brien, John A. Silent reading; with special reference to methods for 

developing speed. New York, Macmillan Co., 1921. xvii+289 p. 

42. Packer, J. L. The vocabularies of 10 first readers. Part II of Twentieth 

yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Bloom¬ 
ington, Ill., Public School Pub. Co., 1921. Chap. 9, p. 127-144. 

43. Parker, S. C. How to teach beginning reading. Elementary School Journal, 

22:15-30, 104-117, 175-188, 254r-268, 1921. 

44. Poole, Gladys E. The attempt to teach. Psychological Clinic, 13:173-190, 

May, 1920. 

45. Shepherd, Edith. Some silent reading lessons in junior high-school English. 

School Review, 29; 206-215, March, 1921. 

46. Simpson, I. J. Silent reading; suggestions for testing and for corrective 

work. Baltimore, State Department of Education, 1922. 32 p., incl. 

diagr. 



554 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 


47. Smith, Nila B. An experiment to determine the effectiveness of practice 

tests in teaching beginning reading. Journal of Educational Research, 
7:213-228, March, 1923. 

48. Smith, William A. The reading process. New York, Macmillan Co., 1922. 

xii+267 p. 

49. Starch, Daniel. Contents of readers. Part II, Twentieth yearbook of 

the National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Ill., 
Public School Pub. Co., 1921. Chap. 10, p. 145-151. 

50. Stone, Clarence R. Silent and oral reading; a practical handbook of 

methods based on the most recent scientific investigations. Boston, 
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1922. 295 p. 

51. Stone, Cliff W. Improving the reading ability of college students. Journal 

of Educational Method, 2 :S-23, September, 1922. 

52. Stone, R. E. Duplication of reading material in 15 second-grade readers. 

Elementary School Journal, 20:702-710, May, 1920. 

53. Theisen, W. W. Factors affecting results in primary reading. Part II, 

Twentieth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Educa¬ 
tion. Section I, Chap. 1, p. 1-24. 

54 - - Provisions for individual differences in the teaching of reading. 

Journal of Educational Research, 2:560-571, 1920. 

55. Uhl, Willis L. Scientific determination of the content of the elementary 
school course in reading. University of Wisconsin. Studies in the 
social sciences and history, no. 4, 1921. 152 p. 

The interest of junior high school pupils in informational read¬ 
ing selections. Elementary School Journal, 22:352-360, January, 1922. 

57. Waldman, Bessie. Definite improvement of reading ability in fourth- 

grade class. Elementary School Journal, 21:273-280, December, 1920. 

58. Watkins, Emma. How to teach silent reading to beginners. Philadelphia, 

J. B. Lippincott Co., 1922. 133 p. 

59. Webb, L. W. Ability in mental tests in relation to reading ability. School 

and Society, 11:567-569, 1920. 

60. Wiley, J. A. Practice exercises in supervised study and assimilative read¬ 

ing. Cedar Falls, Iowa, Iowa State Teachers’ College, 1922. 112 p. 

61. Wilson, Estaline. Specific teaching of silent reading. Elementary School 

Journal, 22:140-146, 1921. 

62. Woody, Clifford. The overlapping in the content of 15 second readers. 

Journal of Educational Research, 2:465-474, June, 1920. 

2. Handwriting. 

1. Freeman, F. N. The scientific evidence on the handwriting, movement. 

Journal of Educational Psychology, 12:253-270, 1921. 

2. - A course in handwriting. Elementary School Journal 2<> • 37^-379 

441-450, 521-529, 597-607, 1922. 

3. Shaw, Lena A. An experiment in the supervision of handwriting. Detroit 

Journal of Education, 2:57-59, February, 1922. 

4. Walker, H. C. The development of the unit plan of penmanship practice. 

Journal of Educational Research, 1:112-118, February, 1920. 

5. West, Paul V. The relation of rhythm to the handwriting movement 

Journal of Educational Psychology, 13:438-444, October, 1922. 

3. Mathematics. 

1. Beatty, Willard W. The additive versus the borrowing method of sub¬ 
traction. Elementary School Journal, 21:198-200, November, 1920 





EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 555 

2. Buckingham, B. R. Mathematical ability as related to general intelligence. 

School Science and Mathematics, 21:205-215, March, 1921. 

3. (Editorial.) Journal of Educational Research, 5:343-349, April, 1922. 

4. Hoover, J. H. Motivated drill work in third-grade arithmetic and silent 

reading. Journal of Educational Research, 4: 200-211, October, 1921. 

5. Kelly, F. J. The results of three types of drill on the fundamentals of 

arithmetic. Journal of Educational Research, 2:693-700, November, 

1920. 

6 . Knight, F. B. Drill in arithmetic. Journal of Educational Psychology, 

14:115-121, 1923. 

7. Kolstad, Arthur. Arithmetic ability of men in the Army and of children in 

the public schools. State Normal School, Bellingham, Wash. Journal 
of Educational Research, 5:97-111, February, 1922. 

8 . Marsh, John A. Relative standing of mathematical and nonmathematical 

pupils. Educational Administration and Supervision, 7: 458-466, Novem¬ 
ber, 1921. 

9. National Committee on Mathematical Requirements. The reorganization 

of mathematics in secondary schools. Washington, D. C., Government 
Printing Office, 1922, 74 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1921, 
no. 32.) 

10. Newcomb, R. S. Teaching pupils how to solve problems in arithmetic. 

Elementary School Journal, 23:183-189, November, 1922. 

11. Reese, Mary M. Study of mathematics under the individual system. 

Mathematics Teacher, 15:460-466, December, 1922. 

12. Rosenberger, Noah Bryan. The place of the elementary calculus in senior 

high-school mathematics. New York, Columbia University, 1921. 81 p. 

(Teachers College. Contributions to education, no. 117.) 

13. Schmitt, Clara. Extreme retardation in arithmetic. Elementary School 

Journal, 21: 529-547, March, 1921. 

14. Schorling, Raleigh. Experimental courses in secondary-school mathematics. 

Mathematics Teacher, 15: 63-78, February, 1922. 

15. Smith, James H. Arithmetical combinations. Elementary School Journal, 

21: 762-770, June, 1921. 

16. Smith, Homer J. A survey of the mathematics courses and requirements in 

one type of secondary industrial schools. Industrial Arts Magazine, 
11: 91-94, March, 1922. 

17. Spaulding, F. T. An analysis of the content of six third-grade arithmetics. 

Journal of Educational Research, 4:413^23, December, 1921. 

18. Symonds, Percival M. Mathematics as found in society, with curriculum 

proposals. Mathematics Teacher, 14: 444-450, December, 1921. 

19. Terry, Paul W. How numerals are read. An experimental study of the 

reading of isolated numerals and of numerals in arithmetic problems. 
University of Chicago, 1922. xiii+109 p. (Supplementary educational 
monographs, no. 18.) 

20. Thorndike, E. L. The abilities involved in algebraic computation and in 

problem solving. School and Society, 15:191-193, 1922. 

21 . - The new method in arithmetic. Chicago, Rand, McNally & Co., 

1921, 260 p. 

22. - The permanence of school learning. School and Society, 15:625- 

627, 1922. 

23 - The psychology of arithmetic. New York, Macmillan Co., 1922. 

xvi+314 p. 

24 . _ The psychology of drill in arithmetic; the amount of practice. 

Journal of Educational Psychology, 12:183-194, 1921. 






556 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OE EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 


25. Thorndike, E. L., and Woodyard. Uses of algebra as shown in study and 

reading. School Science and Mathematics, 22:405-415, 514-522, May- 
June, 1922. 

26. Washburn, M. F., and others. Correlation of a test of control of visual 

imagery with estimated geometric ability. American Journal of Psychol¬ 
ogy, 34:103-105, January, 1923. 

27. Wilson, Estaline. Improving the ability to read arithmetic problems. Ele¬ 

mentary School Journal, 22: 380-386, January, 1922. 

28. Wilson, G. M. The application of scientific method to the determination of 

the curriculum in arithmetic. Journal of Education, 91:376-377, 385, 
402-403, 1920. 

29. Wood, B. D., and Bell, J. C. Solution of problems in geometry. Journal 

of Educational Psychology, 11: 316-326, 1920. 

30. Wood, O. A. A failure class in algebra. School Review, 29:41-19, 1921. 

31. Woody, Clifford. Types of arithmetic needed in certain types of sales¬ 

manship. Elementary School Journal, 22:505-520, March, 1922. 

32. - Scores made by seniors on the Hotz algebra scales compared with 

scores made by high-school students taking algebra. School and Society, 
16: 303-306, September 9, 1922. 

4. Spelling and vocabulary. 

1. Anderson, William N. Determination of a spelling vocabulary based upon 

written correspondence. University of Iowa. Studies in education, vol. 2, 
no. 1, 1921. 66 p. 

2. Ashbaugh, Ernest J. The Iowa spelling scales, their derivation, uses, and 

limitations. Bloomington, Ill., Public School Pub. Co., 1922. 144 p. 

3. Briggs, T. H., and others. Sixteen spelling scales. Teachers College Rec¬ 

ord, 21:337-391, 1920. 

4. Capps, A. G. Curriculum content of a high-school spelling course. Journal 

of Educational Research, 2:626-635, October, 1920. 

5. Clarke, W. F. Writing vocabularies. Elementary School Journal, 21: 349- 

351, January, 1921. 

6 . Hawley, W. E., and Gallup, Jackson. The “ list ” versus the “ sentence ” 

method of teaching spelling. Journal of Educational Research, 5:306- 
310, April, 1922. 

6 a. Henmon, V. A. C. An experimental study of the value of word study. 
Journal of Educational Psychology, 12 : 98-102, 1921. 

7. Horn, Ernest, and Ashbaugh, Ernest J. Lippincott’s Horn and Ashbaugh 

speller. Philadelphia, J. P. Lippincott Co., 1920. xiv+102 p., and supl. 

8 . Jones, W. Franklin. Junior high-school writing vocabularies. Chicago, Hall 

& McCreary Co., 1922. 150 p. 

9. Kellogg, Annie F. An experiment to increase vocabulary. English Journal, 

11: 341-348, June, 1922. 

10. Kimble, Ernest J. Vocational vocabularies for stenographers and court 

reporters. San Francisco, Calif., published by the author, 332 Pine 
Street. 262 p. 

11. Lester, John A. A study of high-school spelling material. Journal of 

Educational Psychology, 13:65-74, February, 1922; 152-159 March 
1922. ’• 

12 - - How simplified spelling might simplify. School Review, 30 • 131- 

138, February, 1922. 

13. - What is a misspelling? School and Society, 15:117-120 January 

28, 1922. 

14. Martin, Gertrude E. The teaching of spelling. Elementary School Jour¬ 

nal, 21:201-207, 1920. 





EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 557 

15. Morton, R. L. The validity of timed sentence and column tests in spelling. 

Journal of Educational Research, 5:444-446, May, 1922. 

16. Newark, N. J. Board of Education. Spelling survey in the public schools 
of Newark, N. J. Newark, N. J., Board of Education, 1920. 32 p. 

17. Peters, C. C., and McClure, C. C. Written versus oral method of teaching 

spelling. Educational research bulletin, 1: 51-55, February 21, 1922. * 

18. Pryor, H. C., and Pittman, M. S. A guide to the teaching of spelling. New 

York, Macmillan Co., 1921. 151 p. 

19. Richardson, J. W. Another educational campaign. Journal of Educational 

Research, 6:97-101, September, 1922. 

20. Starch, Daniel, and Mirick, George A. The test and study speller. Boston, 

Silver, Burdette & Co., 1921. 1st book, xx+90 p. 2d book, xvi+63 p. 
3d book, xvi-+-64 p. 

21. Thorndike, E. L. The teachers’ -word book. New York, Teachers College, 

Columbia University, 1921. 134 p. 

22. Weseem, M. H. Can spelling be taught? American Education, 24:444-449, 

1921. 

23. Wolfe, H. A., and Breed, F. S. An experimental study of syllabification in 

spelling. School and Society, 15: 616-622, 1922. 

24. Woody, Clifford. Application of scientific method in evaluating the sub¬ 

ject matter of spellers. Journal of Educational Research, 1:119-128, 
1920. 

J. English. 

1 . Bamesberger, Velda C. Standard requirements for memorizing literary 

material. University of Illinois. Bureau of Educational Research. Bul¬ 
letin no. 3, 1920. 93 p. 

2. Brown, Rollo Walter. The writer’s art, by those who have practiced it. 

Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1921. 357 p. 

3. Heckert, J. W. Effects of supervised study in English composition. Jour¬ 

nal of Educational Research, 5:368-3S0, May, 1922. 

4. Hill, Howard C. Opportunities for correlation between community life and 

English. School Review, 30: 2«6, 118-130, 175-186, 1922. 

5. Hudelson, Earl. Twenty-second yearbook of the National Society for the 

Study of Education. Part I. 173 p. 

6 . Jamison, Grace S'. A study in correlation of allied English abilities. 

Longwood Commerce Hight School, Cleveland. Journal of Educational 
Research, 6: 241-253, October, 1922. 

7. Johnson, Roy I. Letter writing, a curriculum study in English composi¬ 

tion. Journal of Educational Research, 6:423-437, December, 1922. 

S. Jordan, R. H. A threefold experiment in high-school English. English 
Journal, 10 : 560-569, December, 1921. 

9. McGregor, A. L. Supervised study in English. New York, Macmillan 
Co., 1921. 220 p. 

10. Van Wagenen, M. J., and Kelley, F. E. Language abilities and their rela¬ 

tions to college marks. Journal of Educational Psychology, 11:459-473, 
1920. 

11. Wilson, G. M. Selecting the language errors of children. Elementary 

School Journal, 21: 290-296, 1920. 

12. Wohlforth, Julia H. Self-help English lessons. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y., 

World Book Co. 1st book, xiii+256 p. 

13. - and Malroney, John J. Self-help English lesson. Yonkers-on-Hud¬ 

son, N. Y., World Book Co., 1921. 2d book, xiv+338 p. 

91348°—24-36 





558 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 

6. Speech. 

1. Anderson, Lewis O. A preliminary report of an experimental analysis of 

causes of stuttering. Journal of Applied Psychology, 4: 340-349, Decem¬ 
ber, 1921. 

2. Merry, Glenn N. Research in speech education. Quarterly Journal of 

Speech Education, 7: 97-108, April, 1921. 

3. Starr, Henry E. The hydrogen ion concentration of the mixed saliva con¬ 

sidered as an index of fatigue and of emotional excitation and applied to 
a study of the metabolic etiology of stammering. American Journal of 
Psychology, 33: 394-418, July, 1922. 

4. Stinchfield, Sara M. A preliminary study in corrective speech. Univer¬ 

sity of Iowa. Studies in child ^welfare, vol. 1, no. 3, 1920. 36 p. 

5. Williams, Robert E. A survey of speech training in high schools of the 

United States with recommendations for its improvement. Quarterly 
Journal of Speech Education, 8 : 224r-255, June, 1922. 

6 . Woolbert, Charles H. Effects of various modes of public reading. Journal 

of Applied Psychology, 4:162-185, 1920. 

7. Latin and foreign languages. 

1. Brown, H. A. A study of ability in Latin in secondary schools. Osh¬ 

kosh, Wis., State Normal School, 1920. x+170 p. 

2. Carr, W. L. First-year Latin and growth in English vocabulary. School 

and Society, 14:192-198, September, 1921. 

3. - and Gray, Mason D. The classical survey outlines program, lists 

objectives, describes types of studies and measurements to be used. 
Classical Journal, 17:16-27, October, 1921. 

4. Cook, William A. Secondary instruction in Romance languages. School 

Review, 30: 274-280, 1922. 

5. Franzen, Carl G. F. Foreign language teaching in Iowa. School Review, 

29 : 610-616, 1921. 

6 . Gilliland, A. R. Effect of the study of Latin on ability to define words. 

Journal of Educational Psychology, 13 : 501-505, November, 1922. 

7. Gray and Carr. The classical investigations by the American Classical 

League with the support of the General Education Board. Journal of 
Educational Research, 4: 332-333, November, 1921. 

8 . Grinstead, Wren J. A one-year course in Latin. Educational Review, 

63:147-158, 1922. 

9. Morrison, Henry C. Study in high-scliool procedure—direct and indirect 

teaching. School Review, 29:19-30, 1921. 

10. Newcomb, Edith I. A comparison of the Latin and non-Latin groups in 

high school. Teachers College Record, 23:412-422, November, 1922. ' 

11. Odell, C. W. A study of one thousand errors in Latin prose composition. 

School and Society, 14: 643-646, December 31, 1921. 

12. Orleans, Jacob S. Possible transfer value of the study of Latin to English 

vocabulary. School and Society, 16: 559-560, November 11, 1922. 

13. Otis, A. T. The relation of Latin study to ability in English composition 

and grammar. School Review, 30: 45-50, 1922. 

14. Webb, W. L. A comparison of two methods of studying with application 

to foreign language. School Review, 29: 58-67, 1921. 

15. West, Andrew F. The Philadelphia controlled experiment in teaching 

English derivatives from Latin. School and Society, 16: 54-56, July 8, 
1922. 



educational research. 550 

8. Vocational subjects. 

1. Ayer, Fred E. The engineering degree. School and Society, 14:315-318, 

October, 1921. 

2. Barton, J. W. Smaller vs. larger units in learning to typewrite. Journal 

of Educational Psychology, 12: 465-474, 1921. 

3. Cannon, Kenneth V. Results of an inquiry concerning certain phases of 

junior high school industrial arts. Industrial Arts Magazine, 11:251- 
256, July, 1922. 

4. Charters, W. W., and Greene, J. H. A study of the factors in the efficiency 

of boys’ and girls’ clubs. School Science and Mathematics, 21:335-341, 
April, 1921. 

5. Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. Reorganiza¬ 

tion of home economics in secondary schools. Washington, D. C., Gov¬ 
ernment Printing Office, 1922. 38 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulle¬ 
tin, 1922, no. 5.) 

6 . Dyer, W. P. Some standards for home project work in agriculture. School 

Review, 29:451-459, June, 1921. 

7. Eaves, Lucile. Training for store service. Boston, Richard G. Badger, 

1920. 143 p. 

8 . Edgerton, A. H. Industrial arts and prevocational education in our inter¬ 

mediate and junior high schools. Industrial Arts Magazine, 10: 365-371, 
October, 1921. 

9. Foulkes, T. R., and Diamond, Thomas. Adaptation of courses of study 

to community needs and interests. Manual Training, 21:166-169. 

10. Fuller, Logan R. Manual arts based on home repair. Journal of Educa¬ 

tional Research, 3:173-179, 1921. 

11. Greene, Arthur M. Engineering education after the war. Washington, 

D. C., Government Printing Office, 1922. 27 p. (U. S. Bureau of Educa¬ 
tion. Bulletin, 1921, no. 50.) 

12. Hill, D. S. Introduction to vocational education. New York, Macmillan 

Co., 1920. 475 p. 

13. Hoke, R. E. The improvement of speed and accuracy in typewriting. 

Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1922. 42 p. (Studies in education, 
no. 7.) 

14. Johnson, P., and John, W. C. Education for highway engineering and 

highway transport. Washington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 
1922. 47 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1921, no. 47.) 

15. Krueger, Jean. A comparative study of home economics courses in col¬ 

leges. Journal of Home Economics, 12 : 249-252, June, 1920. 

16. Lyon, Leverett S. Education for business. Chicago, University of Chicago 

Press, 1922. xiv+618 p. 

17. Miner, J. B. The retail selling course in Pittsburgh high schools. Pitts¬ 

burgh, Pa., Carnegie Institute of Technology, 1921. 54 p. 

18. Monroe, Colman, and Barber. Ice cream—how shall we freeze it? 

Teachers College Record, 22:254-258, May, 1921. 

19. Monroe, Barber, and Parrish. Experiments in pressure cookery. Teach¬ 

ers College Record, 23 : 361-374, September, 1922. 

20. Morgan, Agnes F. A survey of the teaching of home economics in the 

public secondary schools of California. School Review, 29:574-585, 
October, 1921. 

21. Newman, C. T. An experiment with a course in general technology. School 

Review, 29 : 603-609, October, 1921. 


560 


BIENNIAL, SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 


22. Rugg, H. O. (in collaboration with the departments of home economics 
in the University of Chicago and in the Iowa Agricultural College). 
Home economics in American schools. Chicago, University of Chicago 
Press, 1920. x+133 p. 


9. Science. 

1. Barthelmess, Harriet M. Geography testing in Boston. Journal of Educa¬ 

tional Research, 2: 701-712, November, 1920. 

2. Branom, F. K. What the business world demands of geography. School 

Science and Mathematics, 21: 65-72, 1921. 

3. Cooper, Clyde E. Status of geography in the normal schools of the Eastern 

States. Journal of Geography, 20: 217-224, September, 1921. 

4. - Status of geography in the normal schools of the Middle States. 

Journal of Geography, 19:211-222, September, 1920. 

5. (Editorial.) Value of diagrammatic drawings in learning scientific facts. 

School Review, 30: 93-94, 1922. 

6 . Finley, C. W. Some studies of children’s interests in science materials. 

School Science and Mathematics, 21:1-24, January, 1921. 

7. -emd Caldwell, O. W. Biology in the public press. New York, Lin¬ 

coln School of Teachers College, 1923. 151 p. 

8 . Foster, Frank K. Science in the accredited high schools of Washington. 

School Review, 30: 424-430, 1922. 

9. Kellogg, W. S. A survey of the status of general science in California. 

General Science Quarterly, 6: 373-383, January, 1922. 

10. Kiebler, E. W., and Woody, Clifford, The individual laboratory versus the 

demonstration method of teaching physics. Journal of Educational 
Research, 7:50-58, January, 1923. 

11. Meister, Morris. Educational value of scientific toys. School Science and 

Mathematics, 22:801-813, December, 1922. 

12. Phillips, T. D. A study of notebook and laboratory work as an effective 

aid in science teaching. School Review, 28: 451-453, 1920. 

13. Powers, S. R. A comparison of the achievement of liigh-school and uni¬ 

versity students in certain tasks in chemistry. Journal of Educational 
Research, 6:332-343, November, 1922. 

14. Stevenson, P. R. Minimum essentials in place geography. Journal of 

Educational Research, 6:300-306, November, 1922. 

15. Trafton, Gilbert H. Comparison of textbook rule in general science. Gen¬ 

eral Science Quarterly, 4 : 450-454, 1920. 

16. Webb, H. A. General science instruction in the grades. Nashville, Tenn., 

1921. 105 p. (George Peabody College for Teachers. Contributions to 
education, no. 4.) 

10. Music and drawing. 

1. Feleky, Antoinette. The musician’s mind. New York, Pioneer Pub. Co., 

1921. 108 p. 

2. Frampton, J. R. College extension departments and the study of music. 

Education, 41:192-198, November, 1920. 

3. Gaw, Esther A. Some individual difficulties in the study of music. Journal 

of Educational Research, 5:381-388, 1922. 

4. Hutson, P. W. Some measures of the musical training and desires of high- 

school seniors and their parents. School Review, 30:604-612, October, 

1922. 




EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 561 

5. Jones, E. E. The correlation of visual memory and perception of per¬ 

spective with drawing ability. School and Society, 15:174H76, 1922. 

6 . Kern, M. R. Report on corrective treatment of a group of monotones. Ele¬ 

mentary School Journal, 23:197-202, 283-295, November and December, 
1922. 

7. Scott, Frank A. A study of applied music. School Review, 28:112-122, 1920. 

8 . Seashore, C. E. A survey of musical talent in the public schools. Uni¬ 

versity of Iowa. Studies in child welfare, vol. I, no. 2, November, 1920. 
36 p. 

9. Taylor, David C. The psychology of singing. New York, Macmillan Co., 

1922. 373 p. 

10. Washington, D. C. Music departments of libraries. Washington, D. C., 

Government Printing Office, 1922. 55 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. 

Bulletin, 1921, no. 33.) 

11. Whitford, W. G. Curriculum-building in art. Elementary School Journal, 

21:281-289, 352^366, 1920. 

11. Kindergarten. 

1. Loeb. An experiment in a public-school kindergarten. Kindergarten and 

First Grade, 5: 5&-63, 1922. 

2. U. S. Bureau of Education Committee. Subcommittee of the International 

Kindergarten Union. Washington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 
1922. 66 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1922, no. 15.) 

12. Social studies. 

1. Alderman, Grover H. What an Iowa layman should know about courts and 

law. School Review, 30: 360-364, 1922. 

2. Almack, J. C. The course in civics for junior high school. School and 

Society, 12 : 623-624, 1920. 

3. Beatty, W. W. An experiment in applied sociology. Elementary School 

Journal, 21 :367-374, 424-443, January-February, 1921. 

4. - An experiment in the use of pageantry and ritual as motivating 

forces in education. Historical Outlook, 11:342-349, 1920. 

5. Cheney, Blanche. Lawrence plan for education in citizenship. Journal of 

Educational Method, 2:112-115, 146-155, 197-203, 1922; 237-240, 1923. 

6 . Coe, George A. A study in civic training. Pedagogical Seminary, 29: 205- 

231, 1922. 

7. Commission of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Business. Social 

studies in secondary education. Journal of Political Economy, 30:1-55, 
February, 1922. 

8 . Commission on Correlation of Secondary and Collegiate Education w T ith Spe¬ 

cial Reference to Business Education. Social studies in secondary 
schools of Chicago. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1922. x-f- 
117 p. 

9. Committee on Social Studies in the High School. Report. School Review, 

28:283-297, 1920. 

10. Davis, C. O. Training for citizenship in the North Central Association sec¬ 

ondary schools. School Review, 28: 263-282, April, 1920. 

11. Dodd, Sue H. History in poetry. Journal of Educational Research, 4: 294- 

300, November, 1921. 

12. Hatch, R. W. Teaching modern history by the project method. Teachers’ 

College Record, 21:452-469, 1920. 



562 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 


13. Minor, Van Lieu. An experiment in current events and problems. School 

Review, 28: 298^309, April, 1920. 

14. Monroe, Walter S., and Foster, I. O. The status of the social sciences in 

the high school of the North Central Association. University of Illinois. 
Bureau of Educational Research. Bulletin, No. 13. 38 p. 

15. National Society for the Study of Education. Twenty-second yearbook. 

Part II, Social studies: H. O. Rugg, C. H. Judd, L. C. Marshall, E. Rugg, 
C. W. Washburne, H. C. Hill, R. W. Hatch, A. S. Barr, E. Horn, J. J. 
Cross, F. M. McMurry, and others. Bloomington, Public School Pub. Co., 
1923. 344 p. 

16. Rugg, Earle U. Supervised study in history. Historical Outlook, 11:142- 

149, 1920. 

17. Sanderson, Dwight. Status of social and economic studies in rural voca¬ 

tion at high schools. Vocational Summary, 3:120-122, 1922. 

18. Schlesinger, A. M. The history situation in colleges and universities. His¬ 

torical Outlook, 11:103-106, 1920. 

19. Shideler, Ernest H. A course in modern social problems for the high school. 

School Review, 28 : 606-615, 1920. 

20. Snedden, David. Civic education. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y., World Book 

Co., 1922. 333 p. 

21. Stowe, A. INI. Social sciences in the Ohio high schools and the Ohio Acad¬ 

emy of Social Sciences. School and Society, 11: 598-600, 1920. 

22. Taylor, L. Report on the history taught in the intermediate grades. Kansas 

Teacher, 14: 9-12, December, 1922. 

23. Tyron, R. M. A one-year course in world history for the high school. 

School Review, 30: 467-474, 1922. 

24. Voelker, Paul F. The function of ideals and attitudes in social education. 

New York, Teachers College, Columbia University. 1921. 126 p. (Colum¬ 
bia University. Contributions to education no. 112.) 

25. Wilgus, A. C. The laboratory method in the teaching and studying of his¬ 

tory. Historical Outlook, 12: 23-27, January, 1921. 

IS. Moral education. 

1. Character Education Institution. Character education methods. The Iowa 

Plan, $20,000 award. Washington, D. C., 1922. vii-f 46 p. 

2. Faculty of the South Philadelphia High School for Girls. Everyday man¬ 

ners. New York, Macmillan Co., 1922. xii-f 115 p. 

3. Shepherd, W. F. Concerning the influence of education and environment on 

the religious ideas and beliefs of children. Psychological Bulletin, 
17: 72-73, 1920. • 

• M:i -i r -s! irO In > •.< <aha«- . : „ !f ; . p 

XVII. HEALTH. 

1. Baldwin, B. T. The physical growth of children from birth to maturity. 

Iowa City, 1921. 411 p. (University of Iowa studies.) 

2. Berkowitz, J. H. The eyesight of school children. Washington, D. C., 

Government Printing Office, 1921. v+128 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education! 
Bulletin, 1920, no. 65.) 

3. Brown, Maud A. Health program in the Kansas City schools, 1919-1921. 

Elementary School Journal. 22:132-139, 1921, 

4. Edson, Newell W. Some facts regarding sex instruction in the high schools 

of the United States. School Review, 29 : 593-602, 1921. 


EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 


563 


5. Ennis, E. M. Results of a test for malnutrition. School and Society, 13:119, 

120, 1921. 

6. Gebhart, J. C. Malnutrition and school feeding. Washington, D. C., Gov¬ 

ernment Printing Office, 1921. 39 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulle¬ 
tin, 1921, no. 37.) 

7. Gilchrist, Edward. Socialized athletics. School and Society, 13:148-149, 

1921. 

8. Gruenherg, B. C. High schools and sex education. Washington, D. C., 

Government Printing Office, 1922. vii+98 p. 

9. Izant, G. G. Do spare-time activities make for school progress. Educa-' 

tional Review, 62: 239-242, October, 1921. 

10. Holt, W. L. Apparent effects of smoking among University of Tennessee 

freshmen. School and Society, 14:136-138, September 3, 1921. 

11. Hunt, Jean L., and others. Health education and the nutrition class. New 

York, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1921. xv+281 p. 

12. Hunter, G. W. An experiment in social hygiene at Carleton College. School 

Science and Mathematics, 21: 349-357, 1921. 

13. Kunkel, B. W. Football and college enrollment. School and Society, 16: 50- 

52, July 8, 1922. 

14. Mallory, Jasper N. A study of the relation of some physical defects to 

achievements in the elementary school. Nashville, Tenn., George Pea¬ 
body College for Teachers, 1922. 78 p. (Contribution to education, 

no. 9.) 

15. Mason, Howard H. Health and regularity of school attendance. Teachers 

College Record, 24:26-36, January, 1923. 

16. Mitchell and Forbes. Malnutrition and health education. Pedagogical 

Seminary, 27 : 36-66, March, 1920. 

17. Mudge, Gertrude G. An experiment with malnourished children. Nation’s 

Health, 4 : 509-510, August, 1920. 

18. Packer, P. C., and Moelilman, A. B. A preliminary study of standards of 

growth in the Detroit public schools. Detroit-educational bulletin, no. 5, 

1921. 46 p. 

19. Payne, E. George. A program of education in accident prevention with 

methods and results. Washington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 

1922. 54 p. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1922, no. 32.) 

20. Rogers, M. C. Adenoids and diseased tonsils. Archives of Psychology, no. 

50, April, 1922, 70 p. 

21. Salisbury, Elon G. Legislative provision for physical education. School 

and Society, 14:.618, 1921. 

22. Sandwick, R. L. Correlation of physical health and mental efficiency. 

Journal of Educational Research, 1:199-203, 1920. 

23. Todd, E. M. Provision in the high-school curriculum for correcting 

physical defects. Journal of Educational Research, 3:23-24, 1921. 

24. Vaughn, T. H. Results of tobacco survey in Winfield High School. Kansas 

Teacher, 14 : 38, March, 1922. 

25. Wager, R. E. A method of measuring fatigue of the eyes. Journal of 

Educational Psychology, 13:561-572, December, 1922. 

26. Williams, J. F. Organization and administration of physical education. 

New York, Macmillan Co., 1922. 325 p. 

27. - and others. A comparative study of formal gymnastics and play for 

fourth-grade children. Teachers’ College Record, 13 : 327-360, September, 
1922. 



564 


BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1920-1922. 


XVIII. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE. 

1. Allen. A guide to the study of occupations. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard 

University Press, 1921. xiii+185. 

2. Cowdery, Karl M. Measures of general intelligence as indices of success 

in trade learning. Journal of Applied Psychology, 6: 311-330, 1922. 

3. Crathorne, A. It. Change of mind between high school and college as to 

life work. School and Society, 11 :28-30, 1920. Also in Educational 
Administration and Supervision, 6 :274-284, 1920. 

4. Dickson, V. E. The use of group mental tests in the guidance of eighth- 

grade and high-school pupils. Journal of Educational Research, 
2:601-610, 1920. 

5. Douglass, A. A. Vocational interests in high-school seniors. School and 

Society, 16:79-84, July 15, 1922. 

6. Edgerton, A. H. Present status of guidance activities in junior high school. 

Education, 43 :173-183, November, 1922. 

7. Freyer, Douglass. Occupational intelligence standards. School and Society, 

16:273-276, 1922. 

8. McDougall, H. R. Vocational guidance in high schools. Industrial Arts, 

11:133-135, 1922. 

9. Maverick, Lewis A. The status of vocational guidance in Massachusetts in 

April, 1919. School Review, 29 : 31-37, 1921. 

10. Miner, J. B. An aid to the analysis of vocational interests. Journal of 

Educational Research, 5: 311-323, April, 1922. * * 

11. Powers, S. R. Intelligence as a factor in the election of high-school sub¬ 

jects. School Review, 30: 452-455, 1922. 

12. Proctor, W. M. Psychological tests and guidance of high-school pupils. 

Bloomington, Ill., Public School Pub. Co., 1921. 70 p. (Journal of Edu¬ 

cational Research monographs, no 1.) 

13. Remming, J. E. Help the student select. School Science and Mathematics, 

21:341-342, 1921. 

14. Thorndike, E. L., and Symonds, P. M. Occupations of high-school graduates 

and nongraduates. School Review, 30:443—151, June, 1922. 

15. Vance, Thomas F. Mental test in vocational guidance. National School 

Digest, 41:282-284, January, 1921. 

16. Weisman, Sara E. A study of the use of the Stanford revision of the 

Binet-Simon test as a guide to the selection of high-school courses. 
Journal of Educational Research, 7:137-144, February, 1923. 

17. Wheeler, T. A study of certain recreational, reading, and vocational phases 

in the lives of young girls. Journal of Educational Psychology, 11 :481- 
501, 1920. 


(Continued from page 2 of cover.) 

No. 38. Main streets of the Nation. A series of projects on highway transport 
for elementary schools. Florence 0. Fox. 

No. 89. Consolidation and transportation problems. Report of the second na¬ 
tional conference on consolidation of rural schools and transportation 
of pupils, Cleveland, Ohio, Feb. 26, 1923. J. F. Abel. 

No. 40. Report of a survey of the State institutions of higher learning in 
Kansas. George F. Zook, L. D. Coffman, and A. R. Mann. 

No. 41. Consolidation of schools and transportation of pupils. J. F. Abel. 

No. 42. Educational research. B. T. Baldwin. 

. No. 43. Games and other devices for improving pupils’ English. W. W. Char¬ 
ters and H. G. Paul. 

No. 44. Outlines of education systems and school conditions in Latin America. 
G. W. A. Luckey. 

No. 45. Work of the Bureau of Education for the natives , of Alaska. Wm. 
Hamilton. 

NO. 46. A study of distinguished high-school pupils in Iowa. Elmer E. Jones. 
No, 47. A biennial survey of public-school finance in the United States. F. H. 
Swift. 

NOi48. Suggestions for consolidating the rural schools of Beaufort County, 
N. C. Katherine M. Cook and E. E. Windes. 

No. 49. Statistics of State universities and State colleges, 1922. 

No. 50. Free textbooks for public-school pupils. Wm. R. Hood. 
























































































































